Medieval

1. #1Alchemy

   Keys: apothecary, chemist, smith, transmute, Alchemy, alchemical, blacksmith, potion, potions, brewing, transmutation, metal, checmical, brew, alchemist, magic

   [Alchemy is a discipline combining mysticism, hermeneutics, chemistry, physics and many other spheres of learning. Alchemists work in laboratories, often situated at noblemen’s mansions or in Royal cities. They find application in smelters, mints, mines, glass-works, and wherever industrial production needs assistance. The work of alchemists is challenging and costly, and so requires the support of patrons. Successful alchemists earn wealth and fame, while the unsuccessful end up in prison or are sentenced to death. Two fundamental alchemical objectives persist: to find the mystical "philosopher’s stone" and to transmute base metals into gold.]

2. #2Animal Husbandry

   Keys: rancher, chicken, horses, horse, livestock, dairy, animal, ranching, Barn, pig, flock, cheese, goat, ranch, animal husbandry, bull, cows, bulls, goats, farming, milk, sheep, cattle, cow, farmer, shepherd, pigs, husbandry, chickens, animals, herd, farm

   [Horses are highly prized.]

   [Serfs prefer to own a cow more than a piece of arable land, to have access to food by way of milk. Milk and dairy goods are not traded much. Many people have a cow of their own and so have no need to buy dairy, and no effective means of milk and dairy product preservation is yet known.]

   [Sheep are kept by both serfs and the upper classes for their wool. The poorest often keep a goat for milk and cheese.]

   [Pigs are left to forage in the woods all year round, feeding on beechnuts and acorns. Pigs resemble wild boar. Pigs are large, tusked, and bristled with wild temperaments.]

   [The most commonly kept poultry are chickens, and only rarely geese or ducks.]

   [All cattle graze freely on the meadows around the village. In heavy winters the livestock is kept inside the house, even sharing the same room with the people and serving as a source of heat.]

3. #3Astrology

   Keys: heal, astrologian, astronomy, scientific, schedules, medical, fate, alchemy, schedule, scientist, science, herb, astronomist, health, herbs, Astrology, month, star, time, astronomer, medicine, healing, stars, months, alchemist, society

   [Alchemy and physic are naturally linked with astrology, which is regarded as applied astronomy. Fate is considered the expression of divine will, emanating from the heavens and giving mankind signs in the constellations of stars and planets. Tables, schemes and catalogues of stars and constellations, as well as calendars used for navigation, are made.]

   [The movement of celestial bodies has an influence on political issues, on decisions about war or marriage. Even medical treatment, food preparation or tasks associated with agriculture were deemed to be subject to celestial mechanics. Astrologers use many devices in their work, such as astrolabes, sextants, quadrants, sundials and other devices for accurate monitoring of the skies. Astrology is a highly regarded and respected science and many astronomers are also astrologers.]

4. #4Beverages

   Keys: drank, spirits, alcoholic, spirit, water, mead, ale, drink, drunk, wine, beer, beverages, beers, Beverage, alcohol

   [There are shortages of clean drinking water due to pollution of watercourses by human activities around rural settlements and fruit juices are available only in season. Everyone, including children, drinks beer. Beer is not strongly alcoholic, and is often served instead of soup. It has no head of foam, and is brewed from wheat or barley. Hops is not a popular flavoring for beer. Beer is flavored with various herbs, and is typically sweet. Beer is typically served unfiltered, including large solid particulates such as grain, from the brewing process. This typically floats to the top of the beer, forming a sort of scummy raft. These particulates are typically eaten, leading beer to be referred to as 'liquid bread'. A straw made of wood can be used to avoid drinking the solid particulates.]

   [Wine is drunk primarily at Court and in monasteries. It is spicy and very sweet. It is condensed into a thick syrup and diluted with water.]

   [Spirits are altogether rare. Distillation takes place in small volumes. Fruit and cereal distillates are about 15-20% alcohol. Spirits are not typically drunk for enjoyment, and are instead distilled for medicinal purposes.]

   [The most popular drink is mead, made from fermented honey dissolved in water. Mead is as expensive as wine, and typically as exclusive.]

5. #5Books and Librairies

   Keys: write, written, literacy, letter, library, libraries, writing, literate, letters, books, read, Book, literature, wrote, lettered, reading

   [Parchment is expensive and is therefore used primarily for codices and deeds of privilege, due to its significantly longer lifespan. The most widely used material is paper.]

   [The transcription of books is the monks’ domain. Each book is unique, carefully decorated, the text enriched with bounteous illuminations, all done by hand. The production of a book takes many years, making them very expensive. Books are very heavy (so as to be hard to steal), and contain a great many pages. Although there are some miniature handbook formats, too, there are books so massive that they can't be carried by one man.]

   [Not only because of their value, but to protect them from destruction, important writings are often kept in chests or cabinets. In libraries, volumes would be tethered to the reading desk by a chain.]

   [Notable members of the nobility or the Church also boast private collections, despite the fact that not all of them can read.]

6. #6Burghers

   Keys: city, cities, townspeople, Burgher, village, villagers, town, townsfolk, burghers, noble

   [The relationships between townsfolk and villagers is not good. Townspeople (not only those enjoying the freedom of full city rights, but also the poor) regard themselves as higher ranking than agricultural peasants in villages. Often, they do indeed have higher social standing, due to their trade and business profits.]

   [Towns are the economic and cultural centers, but it is the country that provides the goods, especially foodstuffs. In a town, the best properties around the square and the market are owned by rich Councilors and merchants. Around them live the craftsmen and artisans, and the poor by the city walls. The townspeople’s livelihoods stem largely from trade, skilled crafts, and many associated professions. The townsfolk buy their food at the market.]

   [The nobles do not generally live in the cities, but reside on their own estates.]

7. #7Burial

   Keys: church, funerary, , buried, grave, funeral, death, dead, graveyard, Burial, cemetery

   [The cemetery (hallowed ground) is an integral part of towns and villages and a regular meeting place for people, where they even traded and close contracts. There is no sense of bereavement – the dead and the living coexist side by side. Only suicides, criminals, the sick, heretics, executioners, and unidentified strangers are buried outside the cemetery, in unhallowed ground. During plague epidemics and wars, the customary funerals are done away with, temporarily, with a frequent need for mass graves.]

8. #8Carts and Wagons

   Keys: carts, coach, wagons, transport, carriage, transporation, wagon, cart

   [Wagons do not have a seat for the coachman, who either rides astride one of the horses, or walks alongside the wagon.]

9. #9Clothing and Fashion / Fabric

   Keys: shoe, styles, style, hat, jewelry, cloth, hair, hats, shoes, fiber, fashion, clothes, clothing, fabric

   [Fabrics are made from plant and animal fibers. Bast fibers especially are used from the very beginning (from willow and linden trees) as well as various grasses. Particular plants were selectively cultivated to be particularly suitable for cloth production, such as flax or hemp. Hemp fiber is tough, rougher, and darker than flax, but unyielding; hence not too suitable for clothing and better utilized for ropes and strings. Cotton is unknown.]

   [The most widely used animal fiber was wool, for its good insulation properties, high absorbency, flexibility and ease of dying. It was combed or shorn from sheep. A highly prized and rare import from Asia was silk.]

   [Clothing for villagers and other commoners, above all, has to be comfortable, durable, and practical. It has to last for years and be worn in all kinds of weather. It generally consists of simple shirts and tunics. Men also wear linen knickers down to their knees and in winter they wear hooded cloaks, fur jackets, and caps. Wide-brimmed hats protect their heads from the sun and footwear is simple. Most items are of natural colors without ornamentation. An exception is festive apparel, intended for special celebrations and church holidays. In the towns, clothing holds greater significance, reflecting status, wealth, and even membership in certain factions, such as tradesmen, soldiers, or apprentices.]

   [Unwed young women have long hair, which they wear down or in braids. Women in towns adorn their hair with ribbons, pearls, wreaths, and vines.]

   [Older married women wear pearled nets on their heads, white or colored, veils, or hats.]

   [Fashionable men have long, coiffured hair, and they like to shave their chins.]

   [All gold tends to be worn around the neck and breast rather than on the hand. The most common type of jewelry consists of earrings and religious symbols.]

   [The most common motifs adorning jewelry are flowers and animals; figural decoration is often associated with religious themes.]

   [Rings are very popular and are worn for both prestige and symbolic meaning. They are either made mostly of bronze, and in rare cases, silver plate or copper wire, and sometimes adorned with precious stones and worn on all fingers.]

   [Footwear is made of leather (cow, calf, goat), as well as grass, straw, bast fibers, wood, cloth, or felt. In the countryside people often go barefoot in the summertime.]

   [The most common type of footwear consists of sandals and slippers made of wood or cork.]

10. #10Combat Technique

    Keys: fighting, fight, technique, train, fights, training, martial, knight, trained, soldier, sword, combat

    [A complete suit of armor is affordable only for a wealthy nobleman. Most often the armor worn gives only partial metal cover, more reliance being given to good combat technique for protection.]

    [Accordingly, sword-fighting developed in two directions: a) knightly swordsmanship – fought with a spear, sword, and shield in full heavy armor b) commoner swordsmanship – for lightly armored foot soldiers, who fight with swords and home-made weapons, e.g. daggers, flails, scythes and bludgeons.]

    [In combat between the lightly armored and the ironclads it is often swiftness, agility, and cunning that makes the difference. Hence swordplay drew interest in the poorer echelons of society. Over time, they gained their skills in sword fighting schools. The training is not very professional, based more on agility, readiness and use of all and any advantageous resources available apart from weapons.]

11. #11Counterfeiting

    Keys: trader, money, trading, chemical, coin, counterfeiting, economy, metal, counterfeit, alchemist, coins, trade, alchemy

    [Currency is losing value due to the substitution of silver with cheaper metals. Counterfeiting of money got better, despite the stringent prosecution and death penalty it entails. One example of such counterfeiting consists of coins that were silver plated over a lead core. This could be tested by biting the coin (since lead is softer than silver). The counterfeiters’ workshops are often hidden away in karst and sandstone caves, and feature a compact laboratory, as the silver-plating of the base metal was a chemical process requiring special equipment.]

12. #12Crime and Punishment / Pillory / Trial by Ordeal

    Keys: honor, crime, murder, criminal, judge, trial, legal, law, execution, incest, ordeal, duel, punishment, theft, pillory, judgement, justice

    [The crimes considered the most severe are murder, counterfeiting money, burglary, incest, and large-scale theft. Smaller, but still officially dealt-with offences include disorderly conduct, public drunkenness, fraud, non-payment of debts, slander, and libel.]

    [Capital crimes are punished by hanging (the most common form of execution of men, mainly for recurring crimes) or by beheading (reserved for the nobility). For aggravated murder the punishment is the breaking wheel, which is left on the gallows hill complete with the corpse, as a warning, until the body decomposes completely. Other options for execution are burning at the stake (for heretics and forgers), drawing by horses, quartering, and impaling. Women are typically drowned, or in retribution for killing a newborn, buried alive. Before execution, the offender's right hand might be chopped off on the block. For felonies, punishment was meted out even on the way to the scaffold – the criminals are dragged behind a horse, tied by the legs or in a sack made of cowhide.]

    [Some less serious wrongdoings are redeemable by payment of a fine. The penalty levied goes to the town coffers, or part goes to the aggrieved party in compensation. Redeeming oneself for murder is possible, but entails paying recompense (‘Weregild’) to the survivors, and putting up a conciliation stone.]

    [The nobility is virtually beyond the reach of justice, and the bailiffs have no power to touch them, even for felonies. Only the King can condemn and punish them (which does indeed happen).]

    [Some public order offences are punished by public contempt, in the stocks on the town square. Worse than the ridicule is the guilty party’s lifelong loss of honor, which also drags down their family.]

    [The pillory would be located in the middle of the square, and it is here that the lesser punishments are meted out, for transgressions such as perjury, slander, or various frauds. It is typically a wooden or stone pillar to which the convicted are tied by a chain for a specific time (hours or even days). They are then punished by the whole community – being spat on, insulted, mocked, and pelted randomly on a daily basis.]

    [Apart from resolution by municipal or territorial courts of justice, it is common (though unofficial) to turn to a God’s judgement, or trial by ordeal. Guilt or innocence is proved by appealing to a God – It had to judge guilt or innocence. A typical ordeal is to be put to the test by fire, hot water, poison, or dueling with the counterparty. The trial often ends in injury or even the death of the accused or the accuser.]

13. #13Entertainment and Games

    Keys: schedule, chess, entertainment, holiday, work, working, cards, card, games, game

    [Work is strictly forbidden on Church holidays and on Sundays, and there are many feast days. In all there are about 190 working days in the year, roughly 20 days per month, or 4-5 days a week.]

    [Chess is costly and time consuming to play and is therefore restricted mainly to noble circles. Cards and card games are uncommon.]

14. #14Execution Place / Executioner

    Keys: prositute, crime, entertainment, surgeon, brothel, execution, whore, punishment, bone, doctor, prostitution, legal, law, clean, surgery, fracture, knacker, street, medicine, criminal, executioner

    [Execution places are situated on hilltops, at crossroads, and out of town, as they are considered unclean. These are deserted places that everyone avoids; no craftsman would work nearby for fear of losing his reputation. The only one to be seen thereabouts is the executioner, who often lives near the site. Common folk would approach the gallows or execution place for the sole purpose of witnessing an execution. Executions became popular folk entertainment, often with the whole town gathering to watch. But sentencing to capital punishment was a right granted only to selected towns, and by no means all of them have their own executioner.]

    [Although the executioner by his profession came in to considerable money and it is a status symbol for a town to have its own, the hangman or headsman is a social outcast. For an honest citizen to make any contact with the executioner is to lose respect, and the executioner themself has to endure a lot of discriminatory measures – sitting at a separate place in the church and at the inn, not taking part in social functions and celebrations, etc.]

    [The executioner takes charge of punishments such as hanging, breaking knees, quartering, burning and torturing, drawing by horses, or beheading. They have their assistants - henchmen – who helps them with preparation and takes away the bodies of the executed. Other tasks done by the executioner include the role of the knacker, who cleared away animal cadavers, caught stray dogs, and even sometimes just cleaned up filth from the streets. The executioner might also oversee the town brothel, was somewhat familiar with surgery, could set broken bones and dislocated limbs, or amputate them in cases of gangrene. Sometimes the executioner sells articles directly related to an execution to the superstitious, for example, the hanging rope, the hanged man’s fingers, or amulets made from his hair.]

15. #15Faith and Devotion

    Keys: spiritual, devotion, church, atheist, god, religion, pray, faith, clergy, spirituality, religious, piety, atheism

    [In Royal cities and liege towns it is important to collect holy relics, remains, and memorabilia to mark the saints. The cult of saints is encouraged, and cathedrals and churches gain prestige with the relics they hold. (It need not be emphasized that most of the relics were fakes, and that nobody took much issue with it.)]

    [Devotion is shown in everyday life and accompanies everyone from the cradle to the grave by way of Church rituals, occasions for worship, religious holidays, or regulations (for example, the numerous fasts). In some way or other, everyone believes in some god or god equivalent; complete atheism is unheard of.]

16. #16Food / Bakers

    Keys: grain, flour, dine, vegetable, food, feast, eat, eating, bake, baker, meal, meals, dining, bread, feed

    [Whether at a village or the Royal Court, the foodstuffs used are mainly those sourced locally. Vegetables and fish are the most typical. Fruits are only available in season. Meat is rarely available.]

    [The most popular kinds of food are thick broth soups, purées, and sauces for dunking bread in. The bread is rye, with white bread only available at Court.]

    [During feasts there are fish dishes, meats, and desserts flavored without the use of sugar.]

    [In rural areas gruel and porridge of various kinds account for the bulk of the diet. Meat is expensive and hunting in the forests prohibited (all game belongs to the aristocracy), which is mostly compensated for by eating fish.]

    [Many ingredients are unavailable, such as potatoes, tomatoes, sweetcorn, peppers, and rice.]

    [Although everyone in a village knows how to make bread and flapcakes, there are bakers in the larger cities and noblemen’s residences. They acquired guild status, which, of course led to rights disputes, because the bakers objected to pastries and bread being sold at markets. The sale of bread is the exclusive domain of the bakers guilds.]

    [The quality of baked goods is supervised by Councilors, or the municipal measurer. If the flour is bad, they don't like its color, or the baker gave short weight, they are fined. If there are recurrences, he is expelled from the guild and subjected to harsh physical punishment.]

    [The bakers often own their own mills, whilst not encroaching on the miller's craft.]

17. #17Foreigners / Safe Conduct

    Keys: foreign, strange, rights, legal, safe conduct, stranger, traveler, right, foreigner

    [A ‘foreigner’ meant s not only anyone who came from outside one’s town or village (and was thus a potential enemy), but also any person without legal status. Foreigners are without legal rights until they pay a surety. This matter is handled by courts of law and there are various regulations setting fees for running a business or renting a house (foreigners were not allowed to acquire or inherit ownership of them)]

    [The safe-conduct document is issued by a member of the highest social tier to guarantee the bearer’s safety. Most often it gives protection in a particular territory during the journey, and sometimes the bearer is also provided with an armed escort.]

18. #18Forgery

    Keys: contract, honor, literacy, promise, literature, literate, legal, oath, honour, read, books, book, document, forgery, reading

    [Forgery of various documents is widespread. Few people can read or write, so few people can judge the authenticity of any record. Even gentlemen of high standing can seldom read and only dictate their documents to scribes – so there is not as much trust in the written word, which might contain falsehoods. Greater faith is placed on oral promises, oaths, and the other person’s word of honor.]

19. #19Frescos

    Keys: paint, decor, decoration, frescos, painter, art, painting, fresco, artist

    [Frescos are intrinsic to architecture and have both a decorative and educational function for the illiterate population, showing in simple terms the wealth and superiority of the nobles and detailing religious stories or scenes from the lives of saints.]

    [Extensive works of art are to be seen in the larger residences, monasteries, and churches or palaces, fashioned by specialized painting studios. Less significant buildings are decorated by local, individual artists. Painters do not tend to sign their work, and thus largely remain anonymous except by word of mouth. Most of the paintings are created by following strict, formally conceived designs and templates, so the styles of individual authors do not differ much. The aim is not originality, but to portray the particular scene masterfully.]

20. #20Greetings

    Keys: hell]o, greeted, kneel, greet, greeting, bow, knelt, introduction, introduce, bowing, salutation, hi, bowed, greetings

    [The basic form of greeting is bowing, with numerous variations depending on the occasion and the mutual status of the participants. A light bow with the hand on the heart would befit two noblemen of equal rank. A deeper bow is a more respectful greeting (to a guest or someone of higher standing). The next level is to kneel on the left knee and bow the head in deference to rulers, barons, or high ranking commanders and it expresses allegiance. The person would have to remain in this position until invited by the superior to rise. The most subordinate level is to bow while down on both knees – an expression of complete subjugation, often combined with a plea (typically for mercy).]

    [Loyalty was expressed by kissing the rings of magnates and prelates. It is not proper to kiss the hands of ladies, but they are given a deeper bow than their social rank alone would elicit.]

    [Particular forms of salutation also apply when addressing a certain person (e.g. in writing): for example, a townsman is to be addressed as ‘Honest’, a Baronet as ‘Esteemed’ and a titular Lord as ‘Highborn’.]

    [In the countryside, people greet each other according to their nature, often mentioning in the greeting wishes of good health, prosperity, and God’s blessing, or making reference to religious tradition.]

21. #21Guilds and Crafts

    Keys: city, cities, crafting, craft, guilds, economic, town, economy, guild, trade, crafter

    [Town society is made up largely of craftsmen and merchants, who ensure its socio-economic growth. Based on their freeman rights they can exercise their craft and have the right to market. In addition to privileges such as the protection of and support for the town’s operation, health care, and food provision, it is their duty to pay taxes on every sale or transport of goods outside the town limits. In essence the status of the municipality is dependent on them, hence it is important that they did not relocate and ply their trade elsewhere.]

    [Several craftsmen of the same profession would be active in a town. These artisans gradually began to form themselves into groups with political and economic rules, or members’ guilds. They have their seals of office and pennants bearing the guild crests granted by the monarch. Each member of a guild has the support of the others, and they all agree on prices and the regulation of sales, and the rules for apprenticeship and discharging their duties. No one without guild membership can trade in goods.]

22. #22Healing Herbs

    Keys: heal, medicine, healing, herbs, herb, astronomy, tea, health, medical, astrology

    [It is believed (especially in rural areas), that the properties of the herbs are affected by the particulars of when and how they were gathered (for example on Midsummer night, at midnight etc.) accompanied by special formulaic incantations or enchantments.]

23. #23Horse Riding

    Keys: mount, mounts, knights, mounted, knight, horses, riding, horse, ride

    [Horse-riding is done only in the full straddling position – by both men and women. Knights ride exclusively on stallions; to ride a mare is considered a faux-pas for a knight. Spurs serve as a badge of honor.]

    [Only the nobility can typically afford mounts; horses are otherwise used for hauling farm equipment and wagons.]

24. #24Hospitals and Almshouses

    Keys: heal, injur, healing, wounded, wounds, wound, hospital, healer, health, injury, injured, doctor

    [Monasteries provide medical care free of charge.]

    [Care for the sick is entrusted exclusively to men; women and nuns are forbidden from helping in the infirmaries by the Church Council.]

    [The treatment of wounds mostly consists of disinfection by means of a hot iron, flushing with water, or applying various ointments and balms. Bandages are of linen or canvas cloth. Open wounds and inflammations are treated with herbal poultices. Soldiers often have to be able to help themselves, because the field ambulances are unable to follow on behind the military encampments fast enough. The wounded frequently fail to survive being carted around for several days in open wagons.]

25. #25Houses and Dwellings

    Keys: house, city, houses, dwelling, floor, homes, village, home, town, dwellings, shelter

    [The kitchen, hall, and living room (hearth room), are all on the ground floor. Windows are kept very small to save heat.]

    [Waste is taken outside the house, into the fields, or disposed of in cesspits. Outside the house would be toilets built over sewage pits.]

    [A typical village house is single-story. Above the hearth is a smoke hole to the roof space.]

    [Lighting is provided most of all by firelight from the hearth. Rushlights are extensively used. Candles are typically only used by nobility and churches due to their expense.]

    [The floor is compacted clay mixed with straw, leaves, or animal hair, often mixed with well smelling herbs. The roof is typically thatched (sheafs of rye or reed straw, often doubled).]

26. #26Hunt

    Keys: poacher, poaching, hunter, meat, poach, hunted, hunting, hunt

    [For the aristocracy, courtly hunting is more for enjoyment, being much cheaper entertainment than tournaments, while providing similar thrills. Hunting became a favorite pastime and chasing game with dogs became almost a ritual. Dogs are used to track and chase down game until the exhausted animal stands its ground in last defense. Then comes the moment for the hunters (up till then only following the sound of the baying hounds), to down the animal with an arrow or spear. Finishing off on the ground is done with a sword or dagger.]

    [Falconry - hunting with a falcon and other specifically trained raptors (goshawks and sparrowhawks) is more of a fashion, a pursuit for both men and women. The poorer classes are not allowed to hunt in the forests, subject to strict penalties (with the exception of hare-hunting).]

27. #27Invective

    Keys: honor, invective, swearing, swear, honour, duel, language, insult, cursing, profanity, insulting, curse

    [The more educated or higher-born try to keep invective and vulgarities out of their speech.]

    [The worst kind of insult questions the honor of the individual – such swearwords quite often lead to court cases or duels. It is common practice that anyone not prepared to defend their honor would indeed lose it in the eyes of those around.]

28. #28Jail

    Keys: prison, crime, criminal, legal, law, punishment, jail, prisoner

    [Prisons hold both men and women together; segregation is practiced solely on the basis of social status and the severity of the crime. Prison is not intended to serve a remedial function, but rather as a temporary residence for the condemned before punishment of another nature, because no one wants to have to feed prisoners long-term.]

29. #29Knighthood Training

    Keys: knight, war, squire, knighthood, soldier, warrior, combat, noble

    [The physical training of a child to become a knight begins before they are 7 years old. They have to know how to run, jump, and climb well, and also to be able to swim. They strengthen their arms by throwing hefty rocks. Over the years children have to become proficient in spear throwing, archery, unarmed wrestling, horsemanship, parrying with a shield, and attacking. Their training also encompasses joining the hunt. The seven knightly skills according to the classical tradition are horse-riding, swimming, archery, fighting with sword and unarmed, hunting, as well as playing chess, and composing poetry.]

    [Similarly, burghers practice combat with different types of weapons, which came into its own especially in town defense. The towns more than anywhere else spawned sword-fighting and archery fellowships, where swordplay is taught. Shooting fellowships are devoted to archery with bows and crossbows, and rarely gunpowder firearms.]

30. #30Land Army

    Keys: army, war, militia, soldier, military

    [The territorial army or provincial militia draws on nobles (princes, lords, squires) with their retinues, the garrisons of clerical dignitaries (bishops and even the archbishop), the militias of Royal towns, village bailiffs, and custodians. It serves to defend the land and is called up as needed by the monarch.]

31. #31Money

    Keys: money, number, counting, economic, coin, numbers, mint, economy, count, counted, math, coins, minting

    [Currency takes the form coins minted in denominations corresponding to the quantity of precious material used (gold or silver). The decimal system is not in general use. Similarly, counting and calculating is done in dozens (12) and threescores ('kopa' - 60).]

    [The quality (and hence the value) of currency dropped significantly, with other metals being added to the silver. This was to do with overexploitation of the mining deposits of the most valuable metals and a shortage of goods for exchange with foreign countries. Economic and financial problems led to a rise in crime. Counterfeit coins are in circulation alongside genuine ones, despite the fact that counterfeiting is one of the most serious crimes and is punished by burning at the stake.]

    [The mint employs two mint-masters to vouch for the precious metal quality of the coins, under mortal oath. The prices of goods and articles vary locally and change frequently.]

32. #32Nobility

    Keys: government, ruler, nobility, knight, yeoman, count, duke, baron, king, yeomen, aristocrat, noble

    [The nobility (aristocracy) is the highest level of feudal society beneath the monarch, with the power and legal privileges commensurate with their landed title or family crest. They are directly answerable to the King, and the lands in their possession are only leasehold, for which they have to pay the King dues and are obligated to provide military assistance in the event of war. Noble status is hereditary, as are the associated land rights and responsibilities. The land comes with its inhabitants, who have to pay their liege lord rent and labor on their farmlands.]

    [A nobleman doesn't have to be educated. It is enough that they have a military upbringing. They have their subjects and servants to take care of administration and physical work. Their main duties are the collection of taxes, managing the militia, and all hereditary functions.]

    [A Seigneur or Lord of the Manor is a provincial nobleman of local origin, long-established in a given territory. A Baronet administers numerous estates. Yeomen, who formed the lower nobility, have no property of their own and serve the higher nobility.]

    [Nobility influence art, since they are often the sponsors of artistic works. This applies not only to architecture, paintings, and sculptures, but also to fashion accessories, hairstyles, and furniture.]

    [The nobility is virtually beyond the reach of justice, and the bailiffs have no power to touch them, even for felonies. Only the King can condemn and punish them (which does indeed happen).]

33. #33Slaughterhouse

    Keys: , meat, slaugherhouse, slaughter, livestock, butcher

    [The slaughterhouse, or shambles, is located on the edge of town. This is the only place that animals can be slaughtered, with butcher's stalls springing up around them. The cattle are examined by the guild master – only if he vouched for their health could they be slaughtered and sold by the butchers. Butchering elsewhere is punishable by a fine.]

34. #34Sources of Light

    Keys: wax, fire, lighting, beeswax, candle, light, bees, torch

    [The main source of domestic light after sunset consists of firepits or fireplaces. If that is not enough to light up paths or dwellings, oil lamps, lanterns, candlesticks, or rushes are used. Ceramic or metal oil lamps are bowl-shaped, sometimes with an ear-shaped handle. In them is a wick steeped in oil, later on supplemented with wax. In the richer homes there are chandeliers with candles hanging on chains from the ceiling. In villages there are simple lamps, burning tallow instead of vegetable oils, and rushlights. Tallow candles stink, smoke, and drip. They have to be constantly wiped and the tallow collected for reuse and therefore they are mounted on candlesticks with a bowl at the base.]

    [Beeswax is considered an extremely precious commodity, and also makes its appearance as a means of exchange among guilds ('payment in wax').]

35. #35The Three Orders of Mankind

    Keys: church, city, three orders, class, mankind, knight, town, society, order, peasant, clergy, noble, social

    [The three orders, or the three orders of mankind, is the belief that each person has a God-given place in the world that contributes to the welfare of mankind as a whole, thus ensuring universal unity and balance.]

    [The most extensive component of society consists of those who work (laboratores), whose purpose is to engage in crafts and cultivating the earth. Then comes the fighters (bellatores), which originally comprised mostly the nobility and their retinues, whose task is to protect society and oversee compliance with worldly laws. Lastly, there are those who pray (oratores), i.e. the clergy, who are concerned with matters of faith and caring for the souls of the others to lead them to salvation.]

    [The concept of the three orders gradually became less convincing, to a large extent because it was not compatible with transition between the classes, while the development of cities in particular was accompanied by the emergence of relatively large, influential groups of burghers, who did not fit into the original division of society.]

36. #36Toilets

    Keys: trash, city, Toilet, privy, shit, refuse, chamber pot, piss, sewer, sewage, pee, waste, dung, poop, street

    [People go outdoors to relieve themselves, to the cowshed or the dung-heap in the yard. Houses of a higher social standing have a little hut built by the dung-heap. At night, chamber pots are used, tucked under beds, and were emptied on the dung-heap in the morning.]

    [In the castles and in wealthier homes we would find a privy – a toilet, located, whenever possible, in one of the heated rooms in an oriel on the first floor. There isn't necessarily a door and inside is a bench seat with a round hole. Not uncommonly it is in the banquet hall itself, so one would not have to depart, and could even observe the goings-on at table from the privy. Privies may be in a niche cut in the wall, with a sloping vent shaft leading to the outside of the building. In either case the fecal matter would fall freely along the castle walls into the ditch or down the slope. It is common practice to empty chamber pots out of windows onto the city streets.]

    [Waste is emptied directly into the street or thrown into waste pits dug around the houses. Gutters of rammed earth carry sewage and rainwater alongside the streets and an unpleasant smell remains hovering over the town.]

37. #37Tournaments

    Keys: tournaments, Tournament, melee, joust, event, knight, jousting, game, noble

    [Tournaments are a favorite pastime of all, regardless of their status. Tournaments are multi-day affairs and are accompanied by many symbolic ceremonies, solemn religious services, banquets, dancing, and so on.]

    [Tournaments are held by the nobility to celebrate the culmination of important political deals or special events, such as a coronation, royal wedding or betrothal, oaths of loyalty, peace negotiations, etc. The aim is to prove agility and combat technique, to show off to others and, often, to win a sizeable prize. Tournaments range from classic jousting, with knights faced off against each other on horseback or on foot, or massed combat, with rival teams battling it out in the tournament arena. In both cases the aim is the same – to knock the opponent to the ground, but not to kill or injure him. Even so, injuries and deaths are not uncommon.]

38. #38Town Gates

    Keys: city, Gate, night, curfew, town, key, walls, wall · Secondary:

    [There are dedicated gates for the executioner and his henchmen, and for unclean/sick people.]

    [After closing time, it is only possible to enter the city with a special permit from the Councilors. Anyone who failed to make it back in time has to spend the night outside the city walls. The gate is locked with a key that is kept overnight with the Bailiff or the Head of the City Council.]

39. #39Towns and Cities / Bailiff and City Council / Rathouse and Town Hall

    Keys: , city, cities, locator, allocator, village, rathaus, council government, rathouse, Town, hall, baliff

    [Towns are of different types; royal, seigneurial, mining, and dowry (which belonged to the Queen). Seigneurial towns are divided into ecclesiastical, secular (feudal), and those of the Royal Chamber.]

    [The main streets and squares of towns remains unpaved (uncobbled). Waste is emptied directly into the street or thrown into waste pits dug around the houses. Gutters of rammed earth carry sewage and rainwater alongside the streets and an unpleasant smell remains hovering over the town. Settlements are surrounded by wooden palisades.]]]

    [At the head of the town is the Bailiff appointed by the monarch (the role is hereditary), and the City Council, consisting of aldermen (councilors). The Council is chaired by the Bürgermeister or Subcamerarious (Deputy Chamberlain). The aldermen are mostly wealthy townspeople and their tenure in the function varies with the status of the town, whether royal, signorial, or free]

    [The Council decides on the most important topics relating to the town and its inhabitants. Court hearings, conferences, dossiers, deeds of sale or donations of property, registers, contracts and other documents were written up and kept at the Town Hall.]

    [The Rathaus is the seat of the Bailiff and the Council. Originally it was an ordinary town house, gradually transforming into the local government office or Town Hall. The buildings are usually of masonry, at least in the lower floors, many rooms having vaulted ceilings. The ground floor of the municipal building hosts shops, a tavern, the site of the public scales, a sentry room, and an armory.]

40. #40Travel and Travelling Merchants / Pilgrimage

    Keys: route, traveled, road, pilgrimage, traveler, merchant, traveling, Travel, pilgrim

    [Travel is dangerous but necessary, especially for traders. The roads differ by their purpose – trade routes have river-fords, bridges, inns, signposts, milestones, and so on. Pilgrimage routes are without such luxuries. Wayfarers will overnight at inns near road junctions, their goods stored in a depot. Traders and travelers are often waylaid by marauders, which led to travelling in groups with a hired armed escort.]

    [Religious pilgrimages are an important part of the world. There are a number of reasons for embarking on a pilgrimage: the pursuit of forgiveness of sins, curtailment of Purgatory for the soul of the pilgrim or their loved ones, requests for healing or other divine help, expressing thanksgiving, or profound piety and an effort to deepen it.]

    [The destinations of pilgrimages are places connected with religious figure's life and work or places where saints had lived or were interred.]

    [To carry out a pilgrimage is to undergo a strenuous and often hazardous journey, whether by land or by sea, and it is a significant achievement for an individual. Providing shelter and assistance to a pilgrim is considered a moral deed. Naturally, the development of the pilgrimage became linked to commercial elements, especially around pilgrimage sites and inns along the route. Often it is possible to recognize pilgrims by their specific attire, which we can see in many illustrations, consisting of a cloak, a staff, a “scrip” or satchel and badges.]

41. #41Witchcraft

    Keys: wizard, sorcery, sorcerer, Witch, magic, mage, witchcraft, magician

    [Any practices connected with magic that are intended to harm rather than help are regarded as witchcraft. Witchcraft is differentiated into white magic – beneficial and associated with healing, and black magic – curses, hexes, and abuse of magic for iniquitous purposes. Magic encompasses divination, necromancy, alchemy, and herbalism.]

    [Efforts to eradicate witchcraft culminated in senseless witch-hunts and persecution of anyone involved with magic. Although many were convicted and condemned, most of those accused of heresy or witchcraft got off unscathed. On the contrary, it was often those who denounced them, with acquisitive intent, and whose accusations proved to be false who were punished. More people fell prey to lynch mobs and fanatical self-proclaimed inquisitors than to institutionalized witch-burnings.]

42. #42Women

    Keys: girl, her, man, boys, mom, boy, children, men, mother, she, Women, child, adult, woman

    [The man is the head of the family, with the roles of women determined by their relationship to him – daughter, sister, wife, mother, or widow. Girls have a short childhood, reaching the age of majority between 12 and 15 years of age. Boys, in terms of territorial law, become grown-ups at 15. Men spend most of their time at their craft, trading, or swordsmanship, depending on their station in life, while women attend to housework and family. Only a widow can obtain permission to conduct trade or a craft activity, with the help of journeymen, of course.]

    [Village women do not leave their homes very much or wander the vicinity needlessly. Some rules about venturing out are dictated by social class. While townswomen and noblewomen can venture beyond the home only when accompanied by their spouse or servants, the wives of artisans, merchants, and peasants can walk about unaccompanied.]

    [The domestic activities of well-to-do women include embroidery, cleaning, childcare, shopping, and playing musical instruments. Village women spend their time working in the fields or pastures, bee-keeping, weaving, spinning, preparing food, knitting, and sewing.]

    [The ideal of beauty is a thin, pale woman with long blonde hair, small rounded breasts, relatively narrow hips, and a narrow waist. The most important thing is, of course, health and fertility. A woman will from the beginning of sexual maturity be pregnant virtually every year – it is not unusual for one to be a mother three or four times over by the age of twenty. Births are complicated and after-care inadequate, so the risk of death in childbirth is great.]

    [Girls are afforded less attention than boys, but when it comes to honor, the contrary applies. Old maids, seduced daughters, and unmarried mothers brought the family shame. While boys inherit the livelihood, the parents of girls have to accumulate a dowry with which to 'compensate' the bridegroom.]

    [Unwed young women have long hair, which they wear down or in braids. Women in towns adorn their hair with ribbons, pearls, wreaths, and vines.]

    [Older married women wear pearled nets on their heads, white or colored, veils, or hats.]

43. #43Armoursmith

    Keys: armor, smith, blacksmith, plate, Armour, mail, chain

    [Specialists in chainmail armor are called byrniers, and an ironclad would need both types of armor - the chainmail went underneath, the plate armor on top. A common soldier would have only partial armor (the breastplate, helmet and gauntlets) - a complete suit of armor is beyond his means. Ornate or tailor-made armor is the prerogative of the rich nobility. Plate armor-smiths are assisted by polishers, who polish or buff up the armor.]

44. #44Baths and Bathmaids

    Keys: baths, prostitution, wash, whore, bathing, hygiene, prostitute, Bath, bathmaid

    [There are baths literally in every town, and not in small numbers. Baths are not in typical individual homes, but concentrated in noble homes, and bathhouses. Sometimes a town would have three to four bathhouses. Here, people have access to hot water for bathing, or steam baths. Steam is produced by pouring water onto heated bars of iron or stones. Bodily cleanliness is in the care of male and female bath assistants.]

    [The bathhouses are attended not just by the well-to-do, but also by the poorer classes. There is even a regulation that the bath-keepers have to open their doors once a quarter to the poor and to students. Bathhouses typically belong to the municipality, and are leased to the bath-keepers. In addition to municipal and private baths, there are also private baths in the houses of the nobility and wealthy townspeople.]

    [The bath-houses are very much associated with prostitution. Bath-house prostitution became widespread and there are scarcely any that do not provide sexual services. In the richer urban baths there are also pharmacists, massage therapists, stokers, and cleaners. In the villages the bath-house keeper has to do all these jobs themself.]

45. #45Guards

    Keys: guards, guard, police

    [It is the duty of all residents to defend the city. The city has an armory with enough to arm its residents. The townspeople have to take turns on guard duty.]

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