Li Hongzhang

1. #1Story Timeframeconstant

   Keys: year, Time, Story Timeframe, history · Secondary:

   The story takes place from 1850 to 1900. During this period, Japan transitioned from a fragmented state to a unified government and implemented the Meiji Restoration. The Qing Empire embarked on the Self-Strengthening Movement and entered its final years of decline. The Korean Kingdom, caught between the Russian Empire, the Qing Empire, and the Japanese Empire, became a pawn in the great power struggles. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire and the British Empire vied for dominance and engaged in power plays in Asia.

   If an event has not yet occurred within the ongoing narrative's timeframe, it will not take place.

2. #2Qing Empire

   Keys: Qing guo, Qing koku, China, Daqing, Qing, Qing Empire, Qingchao, Qing Dynasty · Secondary:

   Qing Dynasty

   The Qing Dynasty, known as "Qing koku" in Japanese and referred to as the Qing Empire in Western countries, is pronounced as "Qingchao" (清朝), "Daqing" (大清), or "Qing guo" (清國) in Chinese. Established in 1644, it was a foreign dynasty founded by the nomadic Manchu people from the northeast, with its capital in Beijing.

   The primary language of the Qing Empire was Mandarin Chinese (普通話), and its currency included copper coins with a square hole in the center, as well as paper money known as "Daqing baochao" (大清寶鈔). Silver ingots, called "yin liang," were also used.

   The national flag of the Qing Empire was called the "Huanglong qi" (黃龍旗), featuring a yellow background with a blue Chinese dragon spitting out a red sun.

   The Qing Empire did not have a national anthem as they did not have the concept of one.

3. #3Clothing of Ordinary People in the Qing Empire

   Keys: Clothing of ordinary people in the Qing dynasty

   In the Qing Dynasty, all men wore long braids on their heads, exposing their foreheads without exception. This tradition, mandated by Qing law, applied even to the Emperor and ministers. Cutting off the braids was considered a rebellion against the Qing Dynasty and punishable by death.

   Women in the Qing Dynasty styled their hair pinned up or neatly tied with hairpins or headpieces, ensuring it was not left loose.

   Men typically wore "Zhang gua" (長褂), a long robe with wide sleeves. The robe had an opening on the left or in the middle, secured with three to four knots, ensuring the body remained covered.

   Women wore loose-fitting tops with wide sleeves and paired them with traditional Chinese long skirts decorated with patterns, lines, and vibrant colors.

4. #4Concepts of Ordinary People in the Qing Empire

   Keys: Concepts of Ordinary People in the Qing Dynasty

   Concepts of Ordinary People in the Qing Dynasty

   Ordinary people in the Qing Empire were generally unaware of what was happening in the world, and often even unaware of events in other provinces within their own country. This was due to the extremely poor circulation of information within the Qing Dynasty, making it very difficult to learn about the outside world.

   Their understanding of international affairs was highly inaccurate and very naive. They believed without exception that the Qing Empire was the world's greatest power, the center of the world, the kingdom among kingdoms, with no one holding a correct perspective. They regarded foreigners as "Man yi" (barbarians), believing them to be ignorant and laughable, yet at the same time, they felt a slight curiosity towards foreigners, particularly in their appearance, clothing, and industrial products, such as cameras.

   They referred to foreigners as "Yang guizi," an informal and derogatory term meaning "foreign devils," while Chinese people employed by foreigners were called "Er guizi," meaning "second-class devils."

5. #5The Military of the Qing Empire

   Keys: ba qi, tuan lian, army, lu ying, yong ying, The Military of the Qing Dynasty, navy

   The Qing Dynasty's military was divided into regular army and militia. The regular army consisted of two branches: the "Ba qi" and the "Lu ying."

   "Ba qi," meaning "Eight Banners," was a force composed of Manchu people and served as the Qing Empire's elite troops. They were not mixed with Han Chinese units and held a higher status than the Lu ying. Over time, due to prolonged periods without warfare, the Ba qi's combat effectiveness severely declined, and corruption became rampant.

   "Lu ying," meaning "Green Standard Army," referred to regular units composed of Han Chinese. These troops were scattered throughout the empire and only assembled when needed for combat, a strategy intended to prevent Han-led mutinies. Because the Lu ying gathered only during wartime, their commanders were unfamiliar with their soldiers, and vice versa.

   The militia was divided into "Tuan lian" and "Yong ying." Although they were less equipped than the regular army, their combat effectiveness was slightly higher than that of the Ba qi and Lu ying. This was because the Tuan lian and Yong ying were trained by fixed commanders and frequently dealt with local conflicts.

   The Tuan lian and Yong ying were regional forces, and their units were named after the abbreviations of the Chinese provinces they were from, such as the Xiang Army and the Huai Army, meaning the armies from Hunan and Anhui, respectively.

6. #6Keju (Imperial Examination)

   Keys: Keju system, Keju, Imperial Examination · Secondary:

   Keju was an examination system invented during the Sui Dynasty and continued until the Qing Dynasty, when it was abolished by Empress Dowager Cixi in 1905.

   The purpose of Keju was to test the abilities of talented individuals through examinations and select outstanding candidates to become officials, essentially functioning as a civil service exam. However, the content of Keju was based on the Four Books and Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature, which had no practical relevance to assessing the candidates' administrative abilities.

   The greatest advantage of Keju was that it ensured anyone in the Qing Empire had the opportunity to become an official through examination, facilitating social mobility. The top scorer of the examination was called "Zhuangyuan," a title of immense honor. The Zhuangyuan was granted an audience with the Emperor, gained nationwide admiration, and received wealth and a high-ranking official position.

   As a result, Keju became extremely important in the Qing Empire, with many scholars dedicating their entire lives to passing the examination and becoming officials. In the Qing Empire, becoming a scholar was a common life path for many men, and scholars were respected by all social classes except officials and the Emperor.

   Additionally, scholars in the Qing Empire enjoyed certain privileges, such as immunity from the death penalty.

7. #7Emperor of Qing Empire

   Keys: emperor, Emperors of the Qing Empire · Secondary:

   The Emperor was the highest ruler of the Qing Empire. From 1850 to 1900, there were three emperors: Emperor Wenzong (1850-1861, reign title Xianfeng), Emperor Muzong (1861-1875, reign title Tongzhi), and Emperor Dezong (1875-1908, reign title Guangxu).

   The only exception was Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908), who controlled the government from 1861 to 1908 by supporting the emperors and directly manipulating state affairs, effectively acting as an empress regnant. Most of the time, she presided over state affairs, with the emperors only regaining power briefly on certain occasions, only to have it taken away again soon after.

   The titles Wenzong, Muzong, and Dezong were posthumous names given to them after their deaths. During their reigns, they were referred to by their reign titles followed by "Emperor," such as Emperor Xianfeng, Emperor Tongzhi, and Emperor Guangxu. All emperors ruled until their deaths.

   The emperors ruled the Qing Empire in a dictatorial manner, referring to themselves as "Zhen," which means "I" in the context of an emperor. This is a first-person pronoun used exclusively by Chinese emperors since ancient times. The emperors always referred to themselves as Zhen, and no one else could use this term; otherwise, they could be executed for treason or disrespecting the emperor.

   Ordinary people usually addressed the emperor as "Huangshang," meaning "Your Majesty." This was the most conservative and safe form of address. One could never call the emperor by his given name or posthumous title, as this would result in execution.

8. #8Taijian (eunuchs)

   Keys: Taijian, Eunuchs · Secondary:

   Taijian were a group of male officials in the imperial palace who underwent castration. Due to this procedure, their manner of speaking and behavior became effeminate, often characterized by exaggerated speech.

   In the Qing Empire's imperial palace, Taijian served as court officials. They held a certain degree of power within the palace and were responsible for assisting the emperor in state affairs. However, they typically lacked genuine skills and often only made emotionally charged and nationalistic statements that held no substantial reference value.

9. #9Cities of Qing Empire

   Keys: Cities and Fortifications, City, cities, Fortification · Secondary:

   Most cities in the Qing Empire were surrounded by city walls. These walls were mostly remnants from ancient times or previous dynasties, and were extremely sturdy, capable of withstanding cannon fire and other forms of attack. The walls were typically covered with a layer of hard earth on the outside, while the inside was composed of tightly packed and compacted soil and stones, making them exceptionally strong and durable.

   Most of the cities in the Qing Empire lacked the infrastructure to support proper living conditions and were often chaotic in terms of sanitation, street layout, and building arrangements. Even the capital, Beijing, was no exception. The only guaranteed structured areas within these cities were the government offices, while the rest of the citizens' buildings were often found both inside and outside the city walls.

   Strategically, the Qing Empire placed great importance on these fortified cities. They feared their cities falling into enemy hands and were even willing to pay ransom to reclaim them.

10. #10Okinawadisabled

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11. #11Self-Strengthening Reforms (Qing)

    Keys: Tongzhi Restoration, The Self-Strengthening Movement, Self-Strengthening Reforms · Secondary:

    The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Tongzhi Restoration and the Self-Strengthening Reforms, took place from 1861 to 1895, occurring after the Opium Wars and before the First Sino-Japanese War. This movement refers to the comprehensive reform efforts by the Qing Dynasty to transform China into a modern state. Following the Opium Wars (Trade Wars) and the Eight-Nation Alliance incident, the Qing Dynasty, determined to end Western oppression, decided to initiate the Self-Strengthening Movement to reform China comprehensively.

    The implementation of the Self-Strengthening Movement within the Qing Dynasty faced significant challenges, primarily due to the country's corruption and the dominance of conservative factions. These issues hindered complete reforms, resulting in the movement's failure after the Beiyang Fleet's defeat by Japan in 1895.

    The direction of the reforms during the Self-Strengthening Movement was "strong ships and effective guns," and "learning the superior techniques of the barbarians to control the barbarians," emphasizing substantial military reforms. The goal was to learn Western weapon manufacturing techniques to produce weapons and warships domestically, reducing reliance on foreign purchases. However, the movement saw little ideological and institutional reform, largely due to the mindset of Qing officials.

    The Self-Strengthening Movement was primarily led by the self-strengthening faction, with key figures in the central government including Prince Yixin, military minister Shen Guifen, and military minister Guwalgiya Wenxiang. Regionally, it was promoted by provincial leaders such as Zuo Zongtang, governor of Shaanxi-Gansu; Li Hongzhang, governor of Zhili and minister of Beiyang Commerce; Shen Baozhen, governor of Jiangxi; Ding Richang, governor of Jiangsu and concurrently governor of Fujian; Zhang Zhidong, governor of Huguang; Liu Mingchuan, governor of Taiwan; and Zeng Guofan, governor of Zhili.

12. #12Empress Dowager Cixi

    Keys: the Old Buddha, Empress Dowager Cixi, the Old Buddha Dowager, the Dowager, Cixi, Empress Dowager · Secondary:

    Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), also known as the Western Dowager, the Old Buddha, the Dowager, the Old Buddha Dowager, Cixi, and Empress Dowager Cixi, was commonly referred to as the Dowager during her time.

    Empress Dowager Cixi was a highly significant figure in the late Qing Dynasty, wielding immense authority that often surpassed that of the emperor. She controlled the Qing Dynasty through practices such as ruling from behind a screen and direct interference in state affairs.

    Cixi was of Manchu ethnicity and consistently maintained a power balance between Han and Manchu officials in the court. Her authority stemmed from the support of Manchu nobility and aristocracy. However, the Manchu aristocracy and officials were notably corrupt, whereas the Han officials were relatively more capable and held many crucial positions, influencing various aspects of the Qing Dynasty. Although Cixi preferred to favor the Manchus, she often entrusted significant power to Han officials.

    Cixi's personality was decisive, resolute, authoritative, intelligent, and rational. She always strived to make decisions that benefited the Qing Dynasty while safeguarding her own power.

    In the court, Cixi favored Han officials Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang, recognizing their exceptional talents. When uncertain about matters, she often sought their advice, later adding Yuan Shikai to her trusted circle. Additionally, Cixi was a supporter of the Self-Strengthening Movement, although she was not actively involved and merely permitted the self-strengthening faction officials to carry out the reforms.

13. #13Zuo Zongtang

    Keys: Zuo Zongtang

    Zuo Zongtang (1812–1885) was a prominent politician, literary figure, military leader, diplomat, entrepreneur, reformer, and poet in the Qing Dynasty. He was also one of the key proponents of the Self-Strengthening Movement.

    Born in Hunan, Zuo Zongtang was known for his arrogant, self-assured, and proud personality. He was domineering but also possessed a strong sense of justice, intelligence, forward-thinking, and strategic acumen, often referring to himself as the Zhuge Liang of his time. From 1868 to 1873, he led campaigns in Shaanxi and Gansu provinces to suppress the Hui Muslim rebellion and the Taiping Rebellion. In 1876, he went to Xinjiang to quell another Hui Muslim uprising.

    Zuo Zongtang was a significant advocate of the Self-Strengthening Movement. In 1866, he established the Fuzhou Arsenal and the Fuzhou Naval Academy to train and develop the Qing Dynasty's navy.

    Zuo Zongtang prefers doing practical work and contributing to the people over obtaining official positions. As long as he believes something is right, he will argue for it based on reason, unafraid of being demoted as a result.

14. #14Li Hongzhang

    Keys: Li Hongzhang, Minister of Beiyang

    Li Hongzhang (1823–1901) was one of the most important ministers of the Qing Dynasty. He was the Governor of Zhili Province and also the Beiyang Trade Minister, responsible for managing military, trade, and financial affairs in the Beiyang region. Born in Anhui Province, Li Hongzhang was a Han Chinese and a key proponent of the Self-Strengthening Movement. He worked hard to modernize the Qing Dynasty, but unlike Zuo Zongtang, he was afraid of being demoted. On the contrary, sometimes he did not insist on certain decisions of the court to maintain his official position, even if he believed he was right. Li Hongzhang founded the Huai Army and was one of the generals who participated in and suppressed the Taiping Rebellion.

15. #15Beiyang fleet

    Keys: Beiyang, Beiyang Navy, Beiyang Fleet

    The Beiyang Fleet, also known as the Beiyang Navy, is a modernized navy organized by Li Hongzhang and is the strongest fleet in Asia at that time. It is the most powerful of the four navy fleets of the Qing Dynasty and is the most emphasized part of the Qing Dynasty's Self-Strengthening Movement.

    Most of the Beiyang Fleet's ships are purchased from Britain and Germany, many of which are the most advanced warships of their time. However, after 1888, the Beiyang Fleet stops purchasing new vessels and ammunition due to court corruption and new policies, causing its strength to gradually decline. By 1895, the Beiyang Navy is effectively a shell of its former self, a fact only Li Hongzhang realizes.

    The sailors and officers of the Beiyang Navy receive professional training, possessing excellent maneuvering skills and a thorough understanding of their ships' performance. Moreover, they maintain high morale.

    The main operational areas of the Beiyang Fleet are the Sea of Japan, the Korean Peninsula, Beijing, and the waters around Lüshun. They use Lüshun Port and Dalian Port as their primary bases for maintenance and upkeep.

16. #16Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen

    Keys: Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen, Zongli Yamen, Foreign Office

    The Zongli Yamen, also known as the Foreign Office, is formally named the Zongli Geguo Shiwu Yamen. It is a new department established in the late Qing Dynasty in response to the demands of the great powers, functioning similarly to a foreign ministry.

    The Qing Dynasty's customs administration also falls under the Zongli Yamen. The Qing customs are managed by Sir Robert Hart, a British national, and it is the only government department in the Qing Dynasty that is free from corruption.

17. #17Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau

    Keys: Jiangnan Manufacturing General Bureau, Shanghai Machine Bureau, Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau, Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau.

    The Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau, also known as the Jiangnan Manufacturing General Bureau, is located in Shanghai. It is a factory established by Zeng Guofan and managed by Ding Richang during the Self-Strengthening Movement, primarily producing firearms and artillery.

    The Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau is one of the important facilities of the Self-Strengthening Movement. However, due to technical issues, the quality of the weapons it produces is not high.

18. #18Mawei Shipyard

    Keys: Mawei Shipbuilding Administration, Fuzhou Shipbuilding Administration, Mawei Shipyard, Fuzhou Naval School

    The Fuzhou Shipbuilding Administration, also known as the Mawei Shipyard, is a series of shipbuilding factories and a naval school established by Zuo Zongtang in 1866 in Fuzhou, Fujian Province. It is one of the most important facilities of the Self-Strengthening Movement, having built at least 40 various types of ships, including warships, for the Qing government. The Fuzhou Shipbuilding Administration is a large facility complex that also includes the Fuzhou Naval School, which trains many outstanding officers and soldiers for the Beiyang Navy.

19. #19International students (Japan)

    Keys: Sino-Japanese War, 1896, First Sino-Japanese War, International students, 1895

    In 1896, Japan's victory over the Qing Empire symbolized the success of the Meiji Restoration and the failure of the Qing Dynasty's Self-Strengthening Movement. The Qing court believed that learning Westernization and methods for national strength from Japan would be more convenient than going to Europe, so the Qing Dynasty began to send students to Japan.

    However, Qing students studying in Japan were influenced by the revolutionary parties led by Sun Yat-sen, gradually adopting democratic and republican ideals and beginning to seek the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty. Many of these students joined the Qing Dynasty's new army upon returning to China, leading to the emergence of revolutionary forces within the new army.

20. #20International students (British)

    Keys: Sino-Japanese War, 1896, British, International students, 1895

    Before the First Sino-Japanese War, with the help of Sir Robert Hart, the Qing Dynasty consistently sent students to study in the UK. However, after the war in 1895, the number of students sent to Europe gradually decreased. Many of these students interned with the British Navy and, upon returning to China, joined the Beiyang Fleet, becoming key personnel within the navy.

21. #21Taiwan

    Keys: Sino-Japanese War, Japan, 1896, Qing, Taiwan, 1895

    Taiwan was a province of the Qing Empire, but the Qing's administration of Taiwan was very inadequate, as they were unable to govern the mountainous regions due to the presence of fierce indigenous peoples. In 1895, following the Qing Empire's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan was ceded to Japan and became a Japanese colony.

22. #22Yuanmingyuan

    Keys: France, 1860, British, Yuanmingyuan, The Old Summer Palace, Qing

    The Old Summer Palace (Yuanmingyuan) was the Qing Empire's most prized royal garden, housing countless treasures and displaying magnificent grandeur. However, during the war between Britain, France, and the Qing Dynasty in 1860, it was looted and burned by British and French forces, an event considered a great humiliation for the entire Qing Dynasty.

23. #23Tianyan Lun

    Keys: Tianyan Lun, Yan Fu, 1897, evolution and Ethics

    "Tianyan Lun" is a work translated and supplemented by Yan Fu in 1897, based on "Evolution and Ethics". Its core ideas are drawn from Darwin's theory of evolution, forming the basis of social Darwinism. It advocates the principle of "survival of the fittest," where the strong should survive and the weak should be eliminated, following the law of the jungle. "Tianyan Lun" had a profound impact on traditional Chinese values, leading countless Chinese people to embrace its ideas.

24. #24Xinjiang Hui Rebellion

    Keys: Hui Rebellion, Muslim, Xinjiang Hui Rebellion, 1864, Qing, 1877, Russian, Zuo Zongtang, Xinjiang

    The Xinjiang Hui Rebellion occurred from 1864 to 1877, originating from a revolt by the Hui Muslim population in Xinjiang. Hui uprisings had long been a major headache for the Qing Empire, with this particular conflict sparked by local Qing officials favoring the Han Chinese in disputes between the Hui and Han communities. During the rebellion, the Hui Muslims carried out large-scale massacres of Han Chinese. In 1873, the Qing Empire dispatched Zuo Zongtang to lead the imperial army to suppress the rebellion, which was fully resolved by 1877.

    Although the Xinjiang Hui Rebellion appeared to be a domestic conflict, the Russian Empire attempted to annex Xinjiang during the war, but the swift suppression by the Qing army ultimately thwarted their ambitions.

25. #25Tributary System

    Keys: treaty system, japan, korea, joseon, Qing, tributary system

    The tributary system was the framework for international relations in Asia before the arrival of Western treaty systems. In this system, the Qing Dynasty was the center of the world, and surrounding countries recognized the Qing as their suzerain, regularly offering tribute. In return, the Qing would send troops to protect its vassal states when they were under attack.

    As the Qing Dynasty gradually weakened, it began to lose its vassal states, until only the Kingdom of Joseon remained. In 1876, following an invasion by Japan, Joseon signed an unequal treaty, becoming a sovereign nation. This marked the Qing's loss of its last vassal state and the collapse of the tributary system.

26. #26Zijincheng

    Keys: The Forbidden City, Qing, Zijincheng, China

    The Forbidden City, located in Beijing, was the residence and administrative center of the Qing Dynasty emperors. This massive palace complex also served as the central hub of the Qing Empire's government.

27. #27Taiping Tianguo

    Keys: Hong-Yang Rebellion, 1864, Zhejiang, Wuhan, The Taiping Rebellion, Jiangxi, 1851, Taiping Tianguo

    The Taiping Tianguo, also known as Taiping Rebellion, occurred between 1851 and 1864, initiated by a group of Qing subjects who claimed to be followers of God. They established a theocratic monarchy and led large-scale anti-Qing uprisings in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and around Wuhan, under the leadership of Hong Xiuquan.

    Hong Xiuquan claimed to be the second son of God and the younger brother of Jesus, becoming the leader of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and proclaiming himself the "Heavenly King." Other Taiping leaders, such as Yang Xiuqing (East King), Xiao Chaogui (West King), Feng Yunshan (South King), Wei Changhui (North King), and Shi Dakai (Wing King), were also given royal titles by Hong.

    One of the key differences between Taiping soldiers and Qing soldiers was that Taiping soldiers did not wear the traditional queue hairstyle, earning them the nickname "Long-haired Bandits" from Qing troops. The Taiping forces made significant efforts to gain support from Western powers such as Britain, France, and the United States. Initially, they succeeded to some extent, acquiring advanced Western weapons.

    The Taiping Rebellion was eventually crushed in 1864 by the Xiang Army, a regional militia led by Zeng Guofan.

28. #28Hong Xiuquan

    Keys: rebellion, Hong Xiuquan, Taiping

    Hong Xiuquan was the leader of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He claimed to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus, and he founded the God Worshippers' Society. He led the Taiping army in rebellion against the Qing Empire.

    The cause of his rebellion stemmed from a severe illness he suffered, after which he received a book introducing Christianity from a missionary. This led him to believe that God had called him to rise up against the Qing Empire.

29. #29The Second Opium War

    Keys: Second Anglo-Chinese War, Arrow War, war, Anglo-French Expedition to China, The Second Opium War

    The Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, the Anglo-French Expedition to China, or the Second Anglo-Chinese War, took place from 1856 to 1860. It involved Britain and France teaming up against the Qing Dynasty, which ended in a devastating defeat for the Qing.

    The Second Opium War was a continuation of the First Opium War (1840–1842). It was triggered by the Qing navy's arrest of criminals aboard the British ship Arrow, as well as incidents of unfair treatment between Chinese citizens and British missionaries.

30. #30Yihetuan

    Keys: Yihetuan, Boxer Rebellion, 1899, 1900, 1901

    The Boxer Rebellion took place from 1899 to 1901. It was triggered by a group of Chinese martial artists from the "Yihetuan" (Boxers), who launched large-scale attacks on the embassies of the Russian Empire, German Empire, French Third Republic, United States, Empire of Japan, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Kingdom of Italy, and the British Empire in Beijing, under the slogan "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners," and with the support of Empress Dowager Cixi.

    Upon learning of the Boxer uprising, rather than ordering its suppression, Empress Dowager Cixi declared war on Russia, Germany, France, the United States, Japan, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Britain. This led to another devastating defeat for the Qing Dynasty, the emperor fleeing the Forbidden City, the Eight-Nation Alliance assembling in the Forbidden City, and various southeastern provinces of China refusing to follow the declaration of war, instead negotiating peace with the foreign powers on their own.

31. #31Summer Palace

    Keys: Summer Palace, Guangxu, Kunming Lake, Cixi

    The Summer Palace is a vast royal garden of the Qing Dynasty. It was renovated into an expansive estate by Emperor Guangxu to provide a retreat for the reigning Empress Dowager Cixi. Within its grounds lies a large man-made lake known as Kunming Lake.

32. #32Yuan Shikai

    Keys: Qing-Japanese War, Qing, Yuan Shikai, First Sino-Japanese War

    Yuan Shikai was a prominent Han Chinese official of the Qing Dynasty. In 1882, at the age of 23, he was dispatched to Korea, then a vassal state of the Qing Dynasty, as the "Commissioner of Trade" to suppress a rebellion and assist in training the Joseon Kingdom's army. In 1884, he successfully led the Joseon Kingdom's troops to suppress another rebellion instigated by pro-Japanese factions within the Korean government in collaboration with Japanese forces stationed in Korea.

    In November 1895, after the Qing Empire's defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (also known as the Qing-Japanese War), Yuan was tasked with training a modernized army known as the "Newly Created Army." Later that year, he joined the Kang Youwei-founded Strengthening Society (Qiang Xue Hui) and contributed funds to support its activities.

    Yuan Shikai upheld the ancient Confucian principles of China. He excelled in training modern armies and had a unique talent for organizing and managing military forces. Additionally, he supported the Self-Strengthening Movement and advocated for sending students abroad to study Western knowledge.

    Yuan's personality was pragmatic, prioritizing benefits over ethical considerations. He possessed strong determination and decisiveness, leaving an impression of being ambitious and a natural-born leader. Although he supported modernization efforts such as the Self-Strengthening Movement, he remained inwardly conservative at heart.

33. #33Emperor Guangxu

    Keys: Emperor Guangxu, Guangxu, 1908, Emperor, Qing, 1871

    Emperor Guangxu (1871–1908) was the second son of Prince Chun, Yixuan, the grandson of Emperor Daoguang, the nephew of Emperor Xianfeng, the cousin and half-cousin of Emperor Tongzhi, and the nephew of Empress Dowager Cixi. After the death of Emperor Tongzhi, he was chosen and supported by the two empress dowagers to ascend the throne at the age of three, being posthumously adopted by Emperor Xianfeng and the two empress dowagers to inherit the imperial title.

    During the early years of his reign, state affairs were managed by Empress Dowager Cian and Empress Dowager Cixi. After the death of Empress Dowager Cian, Empress Dowager Cixi continued to act as regent. Although Emperor Guangxu later had a chance to rule independently, real power remained firmly in the hands of Empress Dowager Cixi throughout his life.

    During his reign, significant events occurred, including the First Sino-Japanese War, the Hundred Days' Reform, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Late Qing Reforms. After the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, Emperor Guangxu was placed under house arrest at Yingtai in Zhongnanhai by Empress Dowager Cixi, losing his power to govern and becoming a mere figurehead.

34. #34Joseon Kingdom

    Keys: Japan, First Sino-Japanese War, Joseon, Qing, Yuan Shikai, Donghak Peasant Revolution, 1894, 1895, 1866, 1871

    Joseon, also known as the Joseon Dynasty, Joseon Kingdom or Kingdom of Joseon, was the last vassal state of the Qing Dynasty. In 1876, Joseon was forced to sign the Treaty of Ganghwa with Japan, declaring itself an independent nation. However, Joseon remained a tool in the power struggle between Qing China and Japan.

    In 1866 and 1871, Joseon faced invasions by France and the United States, respectively. Remarkably, Joseon managed to defeat both, a rare achievement, but it also missed opportunities for modernization.

    In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Revolution broke out in Joseon. The rebels, followers of Eastern learning and beliefs, opposed Western knowledge and influence. This uprising prompted the Qing Dynasty to dispatch Yuan Shikai to quell the unrest. Japan also sent troops but arrived later than the Qing forces. This event escalated tensions and ultimately ignited the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895.

    Following the war, Joseon fell entirely under Japanese control, becoming a puppet state of Japan.

35. #35Japan

    Keys: Japan, First Sino-Japanese War, 1895, Joseon, 1885, Empire of Japan, Qing, 1894, 1869

    Japan, officially known as the Empire of Japan, was formally established in 1869 after the Meiji government forces defeated the Tokugawa shogunate in the Boshin War. From then on, Japan began a comprehensive process of Westernization, adopting European political, military, and economic systems, among other aspects, while identifying the Qing Dynasty as its hypothetical adversary in its pursuit of national strength and wealth.

    In 1885, Japan proclaimed the slogan "Datsu-A Nyū-Ō" ("Leave Asia, Enter Europe"), aiming to transform itself into a global power, distancing itself from the impoverished Asian continent and joining the ranks of the European great powers.

    After the Donghak Peasant Revolution in Joseon, Japan launched the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, defeating the Qing Dynasty and officially establishing itself as a world power.

36. #36Sino-Japanese War

    Keys: Qing-Japanese War, Russia, France, Sino-Japanese War, Japan, First Sino-Japanese War, China, Qing, Germany, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula, 1895, Qing Dynasty

    The First Sino-Japanese War, also known as the Sino-Japanese War or Qing-Japanese War, was a significant conflict between Japan and the Qing Empire in 1895. The war resulted in a decisive Japanese victory, with the Qing Dynasty's Beiyang Fleet completely annihilated, marking Japan's formal entry into the ranks of global powers.

    Following the war, Japan demanded 200 million taels of silver from the Qing Dynasty as indemnity and sought to acquire the Liaodong Peninsula and Taiwan as colonies. However, due to the intervention of Russia, France, and Germany, the Liaodong Peninsula was ultimately redeemed by the Qing Dynasty, leaving Japan with only Taiwan.

37. #37International stage

    Keys: Russia, France, Japan, Italy, Qing, Germany, United Kingdom, Austro-Hungarian Empire, United States

    The Qing Dynasty faced severe disadvantages on the international stage, with many of its territories being controlled by countries such as Russia (Russian Empire), Germany (German Empire), France (French Third Republic), Portugal (Kingdom of Portugal), the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the United Kingdom (British Empire) under the guise of concessions.

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