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"Imperial Reform" (Reichsreform) of 1495: Attempts were made at the Diet of Worms to create more effective central institutions. Eternal Peace (Ewiger Landfriede): A general ban on civil wars between imperial ranks was proclaimed. Creation of the Imperial Chamber Court (Reichskammergericht) and the introduction of an imperial tax ("general pfennig"): These measures were aimed at centralizing justice and finance, but their implementation encountered enormous difficulties and resistance from the princes. Dynastic Policy: Through the marriage of his son Philip the Handsome to Infanta Juana of Castile, Maximilian I laid the foundation for the unification of the Habsburg dominions with Spain, the Netherlands, and their colonies, which transformed the dynasty into a dominant power in Europe. The period from 1346 to 1514 in France, through which the scenario will unfold, encompasses much of the Hundred Years' War and the subsequent restoration and centralization of the state under the Valois dynasty. This period is marked by profound crises, civil wars, and, ultimately, the strengthening of royal power and the territorial unification of France. I. The Hundred Years' War: Crisis and Survival (1346–1453) In 1346, France was already at war with England (the Hundred Years' War began in 1337). Key Events and Rulers: Philip VI (1328–1350): 1346: The defeat of the French army at the disastrous Battle of Crécy (August 26), where the English effectively used their archers, and the French knightly cavalry suffered defeat. 1346–1347: The lengthy siege and subsequent capture of the strategically important port of Calais by the English. At the same time, the Black Death (plague) devastates the country, exacerbating the socio-economic crisis. John II the Good (1350–1364): 1356: Another severe defeat for the French at the Battle of Poitiers, King John II is captured by the English. A political crisis begins in France: uprisings (the Paris Revolt led by Etienne Marcel, the peasant revolt of the Jacquerie in 1358) and a struggle for power. 1360: The Treaty of Brétigny, by which France cedes vast territories in the southwest to England and pays a huge ransom for the king. Charles V the Wise (1364–1380): Restoration. Charles V, with the help of the talented commander Bertrand du Guesclin, adopted a "small war" tactic, avoiding major battles. By the end of his reign, most of the lost territories, with the exception of Calais and part of Guienne, were recaptured. Charles VI the Mad (1380–1422): His reign was marked by the king's madness and internecine wars between feudal factions—the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. 1415: Henry V of England resumes the war and achieves a crushing victory at the Battle of Agincourt. 1420: The Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry V was declared heir to the French throne and regent of France. The country was effectively divided into three parts: English, Burgundian, and a small area loyal to the Dauphin Charles. Charles VII (1422–1461): At first, his situation was desperate. The turning point came with Joan of Arc, who lifted the siege of Orleans in 1429. Subsequent victories allowed Charles VII to be crowned in Reims. 1435: The Treaty of Arras with the Duke of Burgundy, depriving the English of a key ally. 1453: The English capitulated at Bordeaux (Battle of Castillon), ending the active fighting of the Hundred Years' War. England retained only Calais. II. Restoration and Centralization (1453–1514) After the end of the war, France began a process of centralization and strengthening of royal power. Louis XI (1461–1483): "The Spider King," so nicknamed for his cunning and diplomatic intrigues. He waged war against the major feudal lords united in the League of the Public Welfare, especially the powerful Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold. After the death of Charles the Bold (1477), Louis XI annexed most of the Duchy of Burgundy to the royal domain, as well as Picardy and Provence. He strengthened the economy, supporting cities and trade. Charles VIII (1483–1498): Completed the annexation of Brittany through his marriage to Anne of Brittany. Began the Italian Wars (campaign in Italy in 1494–1495), ushering in a long period of French foreign expansion in the region. Louis XII (1498–1515): Continued the Italian Wars, laying claim to Naples and Milan. His reign was relatively successful domestically: he reduced taxes, implemented judicial reforms, and enjoyed popular approval. The period from 1346 to 1514 in English history, through which it will be explored, spans the late Middle Ages and marks the transition to the modern era, characterized by dramatic events: the culmination of the Hundred Years' War, the devastating Black Death, social upheaval, the internecine Wars of the Roses, and, finally, the rise of the Tudor dynasty. The Plantagenet Era: War and Plague (1346–1399) The Hundred Years' War (continued): In 1346, English forces led by Edward III achieved a crushing victory over the French at the Battle of Crécy, demonstrating the effectiveness of the English longbow. This victory strengthened England's position in France and led to the capture of Calais. Another major victory followed in 1356 at Poitiers, where the French king, John II the Good, was captured. The Black Death: Around 1348, a pandemic of bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, struck England. It killed approximately half the country's population, leading to a severe labor shortage, economic chaos, and the collapse of the traditional feudal order. The labor shortage forced landowners to convert arable land to pasture, primarily for sheep. Social Unrest: Economic and social changes provoked rebellions. The most significant was the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, led by Wat Tyler and John Ball, against high taxes and feudal dues. Change of Monarch: In 1399, King Richard II (grandson of Edward III) was deposed by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV, founding the House of Lancaster. The Lancaster and York Dynasties: The Wars of the Roses (1399–1485) Resumption of the Hundred Years' War: Henry V (reigned from 1413) renewed the war with France and won a legendary victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, after which England occupied a significant part of France. However, by 1453 (now under Henry VI), the English were finally driven out of all French territories except Calais. Wars of the Roses: Defeat in France and the weakness of the mentally ill Henry VI led to an internal conflict for the throne between the two branches of the Plantagenet dynasty: the Lancasters (emblem of the Rose) and the Yorkists (emblem of the Rose). This bloody civil war lasted for approximately 30 years (1455–1485). Key Events and Figures: The war included numerous battles, intrigues, and executions. Key figures included Richard, Duke of York, Queen Margaret of Anjou, Edward IV of York, and Richard III (the last Yorkist king). The End of the Dynasty: The Wars of the Roses culminated in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where Richard III was killed and Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, emerged victorious. The Tudor Era: The Making of a New England (1485–1514) Henry VII (1485–1509): Founder of the Tudor dynasty. To unite the country and end the wars, he married Elizabeth of York, combining the Red and White Roses in the new Tudor coat of arms. Henry VII strengthened royal authority, suppressed the remnants of opposition, improved finances, and laid the foundations of English absolutism. Henry VIII (from 1509): By 1514, his son, Henry VIII, was ruling. This period marked the further strengthening of the monarchy and the beginning of processes that would later lead to the English Reformation. By this time, England had recovered from the upheavals of the previous centuries and entered the Renaissance. The history of Italy from 1346 to 1514, through which it will move, encompasses a period of profound political change, socioeconomic upheaval, and cultural flourishing known as the Early and High Renaissance. During this period, Italy was not a unified state, but rather a collection of independent and warring city-states (such as Florence, Venice, Milan, and Genoa) and large territorial entities (the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples). Key Events and Processes: Mid-to-Late 14th Century: Crisis and Beginning of the Renaissance 1348: Black Death (Plague). The plague pandemic devastated the Italian Peninsula, killing a huge number of people. This had far-reaching social and economic consequences, including labor shortages, changes in the social structure, and economic crisis. Political Fragmentation and Conflict. Internal strife continued between the Guelphs (supporters of the Pope) and the Ghibellines (supporters of the Emperor), as well as wars between city-states for control of territories and trade routes. The Proto-Renaissance began. Characteristics of a new era were already evident in culture: the works of Dante Alighieri (died 1321), Francesco Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio laid the foundations of humanism. 15th Century: Balance of Power and the Rise of the Renaissance Rise of the Signories. Many city-communes came under the rule of signori (sole rulers), such as the Medici in Florence and the Sforza in Milan. 1454: Peace of Lodi. This treaty, concluded between Milan, Venice, and Florence (later joined by the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples), established relative peace and a balance of power on the Italian Peninsula for almost 40 years. This was the period of the highest flowering of the Italian Renaissance (Quattrocento), when such masters as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael flourished. Medici rule in Florence. Under Cosimo and especially Lorenzo the Magnificent, Florence became the main cultural center of Europe, a center of humanism and art. Late 15th – early 16th century: Italian Wars 1494: Beginning of the Italian Wars. The French king Charles VIII invaded Italy, laying claim to the Kingdom of Naples. This event ended the fragile peace established in Lodi. 1494–1498: Theocratic dictatorship of Savonarola in Florence. After the expulsion of the Medici, the Dominican monk Girolamo Savonarola, who opposed the luxury and secular culture of the Renaissance, established power in Florence. The Struggle for Dominance. The subsequent wars became an arena for confrontation between France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire for control of the rich Italian territories. Circa 1514. This period marks the height of the Italian Wars, when European powers actively divided up spheres of influence in Italy. By this time, Spain had already established its dominance in the South (Naples), while France was fighting for the North (Milan). The history of Poland from 1346 to 1514, which it will follow, encompasses the period of prosperity under the last Piasts, the brief reign of the Angevin dynasty, and the beginning of the Jagiellonian era, which led to the formation of a strong Polish-Lithuanian state and the beginning of the "Golden Age." I. The End of the Piast Dynasty: Casimir III the Great (to 1370) In 1346, Poland was ruled by Casimir III the Great (1333–1370), the last king of the Piast dynasty. This period (until his death in 1370) was characterized by significant internal development and strengthening of the state: Internal reforms: Casimir III carried out judicial, tax, and monetary reforms, unifying the law (issuing the Wiślice-Pitroków Statutes of 1346–1347). Construction and Defense: He strengthened the country's defenses by building approximately 50 castles and surrounding 27 cities with walls (hence the saying: "Cazimir found Poland wooden and left it stone"). Territorial Growth: The kingdom's territory more than doubled with the annexation of Galician Ruthenia and other eastern lands. Education: In 1364, the University of Krakow (later Jagiellonian University) was founded, becoming the first institution of higher education in Poland. II. The Angevin Dynasty and the "Queenlessness" (1370–1386) After the death of Casimir III in 1370, the male line of the Piast dynasty died out, and the throne passed to his nephew, the Hungarian King Louis I the Great of the Angevin dynasty. Personal Union: Poland and Hungary were united by a personal union. Louis rarely visited Poland, ruling through governors, which caused discontent among the Polish nobility. Privilege of Kosice (1374): To secure the throne for one of his daughters, Louis granted the Polish nobility extensive privileges, limiting taxes and guaranteeing rights, which strengthened the position of the nobility. Queen Jadwiga (1384–1399): After Louis's death in 1382, a period of succession struggle ("queenlessness") began, culminating in the election of his youngest daughter, Jadwiga, as Polish "king" (rather than queen consort). She became a key figure in the subsequent history of the country. III. The Jagiellonian Era (1386–1514) Jadwiga's reign marked the beginning of a powerful new dynasty – the Jagiellons. Union of Krewo (1385): Polish nobles arranged the marriage of the young Jadwiga to the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila. Jogaila converted to Catholicism, baptized Lithuania, and became King of Poland, Władysław II Jagiello (1386–1434). This union united Poland and Lithuania into a powerful state capable of resisting the Teutonic Order. Battle of Grunwald (1410): The combined forces of Poland and Lithuania dealt a crushing defeat to the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald, ending its dominance in the region. Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466): As a result of this war with the Order (under Casimir IV Jagiellon), Poland regained access to the Baltic Sea (West Prussia) and achieved vassalage with the rest of the Order (East Prussia) by the Treaty of Toruń. Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447–1492): His reign strengthened the internal structure of the state. The position of the nobility's self-government was strengthened (the Sejm was formed). The Jagiellonian dynasty extended its influence to Bohemia and Hungary. Jan I Olbracht (1492–1501) and Aleksander Jagiellon (1501–1506): During this period, the nobility continued to gain strength. The adoption of the Nieszawa Statutes (1454) and the Nihil Novi Statute (1505) enshrined the principle that new laws could not be passed without the consent of the Sejm of the nobility, marking an important milestone in the development of Polish democracy. Sigismund I the Old (from 1506): His reign extends beyond the period mentioned above, but it laid the foundations for the beginning of Poland's "Golden Age" in the 16th century. The period from 1346 to 1514 in English history, which will be the period through which it will move, encompasses the Late Middle Ages and marks a time of great upheaval, social change, prolonged wars, and dynastic changes. This period is characterized by two major conflicts: the Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses, as well as devastating epidemics and social unrest. Dynasties of England, 1346–1514 During this period, three dynasties ruled England: Plantagenets (until 1399, main line) Lancasters (1399–1461, 1470–1471, collateral branch of the Plantagenets) Yorks (1461–1470, 1471–1485, collateral branch of the Plantagenets) Tudors (from 1485) Key Events and Details of the Period (1346–1514) I. The Plantagenet Era and the Hundred Years' War (1346–1399) The period begins at the height of the Hundred Years' War with France (1337–1453), when the English kings laid claim to the French throne. 1346 Battle of Crécy: English forces under Edward III achieved a crushing victory over the French, thanks in large part to the effective use of the English longbow. This event strengthened England's position in the conflict. 1348 Black Death: The Black Death pandemic struck England, killing nearly half the population. This catastrophe brought about profound economic and social changes, including a severe labor shortage, which undermined the old feudal order and led to rising wages. 1356 Battle of Poitiers: Another major English victory, resulting in the capture of the French King John II the Good. 1381 Wat Tyler's Rebellion: Social tensions caused by the plague and the introduction of the poll tax resulted in a large-scale peasant revolt. Although the rebellion was suppressed, it exposed deep-seated social problems. Overthrow of Richard II: In 1399, King Richard II (grandson of Edward III) was overthrown by his cousin Henry Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV, founding the House of Lancaster. II. The Lancastrian Era and the Continuation of the War (1399–1461) Henry V and the Battle of Agincourt: King Henry V resumed the war with France and won a legendary victory at Agincourt in 1415. By the Treaty of Troyes, he was declared heir to the French throne. Loss of French Possessions: During the reign of his son, the weak Henry VI, the English gradually lost all their territories in France, with the exception of Calais. The end of the Hundred Years' War in 1453 (the Battle of Castillon) led to many nobles and soldiers returning home embittered and unemployed, which became one of the causes of internal conflicts. III. Wars of the Roses (1455–1485) A series of civil wars for the English throne between two branches of the Plantagenets: the House of Lancaster (symbolized by the red rose) and the House of York (symbolized by the white rose). Key figures: Henry VI (Lancaster), Richard, Duke of York, Edward IV (York), Richard III (York), Henry VII Tudor. Battle of Bosworth Field: In 1485, Henry Tudor (a distant relative of the Lancasters) defeated and killed King Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This battle concluded the Wars of the Roses. Establishment of the Tudor Dynasty: Henry Tudor ascended the throne as Henry VII and married Elizabeth of York, uniting the warring houses and bringing much-needed peace to the country. IV. The Beginning of the Tudor Era (1485–1514) Henry VII's reign (until 1509) was devoted to strengthening royal authority and restoring financial stability to the country after decades of war. He suppressed several minor rebellions and pretenders to the throne. He actively used the Star Chamber to suppress rebellious nobles. He avoided costly wars and promoted trade. By 1514, his son, Henry VIII (who ascended the throne in 1509), had succeeded him, inheriting a strong and stable kingdom. The history of Rus' from 1346 to 1514, which will be the period through which it will move, encompasses the strengthening of the Moscow Principality, the beginning of liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the formation of a unified Russian state centered in Moscow. This period became a turning point in Russian history. Key Events and Figures Period from 1346 to 1462: The Strengthening of Moscow and the Struggle with the Horde Ivan II Ivanovich the Red (reigned in Moscow from 1353 to 1359): He continued the policy of his father, Ivan Kalita, aimed at strengthening the Moscow Principality. Under his rule, the metropolitan moved to Moscow, which further enhanced its political and spiritual significance. Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (reigned in Moscow from 1359 to 1389): Battle on the Vozha River (1378): The Russian army under Dmitry Ivanovich achieved its first significant victory over a large Horde detachment led by Murza Begich. Battle of Kulikovo (September 8, 1380): A decisive battle in which the combined Russian forces led by Dmitry Donskoy routed the army of Temnik Mamai on the Kulikovo Field. This victory became a symbol of the rebirth of Rus' and dealt a serious blow to the power of the Golden Horde, although the yoke was not completely overthrown. The victory was due to high morale, the unity of the majority of princes, and the surprise attack of the Ambush Regiment. Tokhtamysh's Invasion (1382): Khan Tokhtamysh, having restored the unity of the Horde, suddenly attacked Rus' and burned Moscow, forcing Dmitry Donskoy to resume paying tribute. Vasili I Dmitrievich (reigned from 1389 to 1425): Continued his father's policy of consolidating the Russian lands. His reign was marked by Tamerlane's (Timur's) invasion in 1395, which, however, did not reach Moscow. Feudal War (1425–1453): A protracted conflict between the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy (Vasili II the Dark and his uncle Yuri Zvenigorodsky with his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka) for the grand princely throne. The war weakened the principality, but ultimately led to the victory of Vasily II and the centralization of power. Period from 1462 to 1514: Completion of unification and overthrow of the yoke Ivan III Vasilyevich the Great (reigned from 1462 to 1505): Considered the founder of the unified Russian state and "sovereign of all Rus'." Land annexation: Under his rule, Moscow annexed the principalities of Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Novgorod (1478, liquidation of the Novgorod boyar republic), Tver (1485), and Vyatka (1489). Overthrow of the Horde yoke (1480): Ivan III refused to pay tribute to the Horde in 1476. The culmination was the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, when the armies of Khan Akhmat and Ivan III remained on opposite sides of the river for an extended period. As a result, Khan Akhmat retreated without a battle. This event marked the final collapse of the Mongol-Tatar rule, which had lasted for approximately 240 years. Sudebnik (Code of Laws) of 1497: The first all-Russian code of laws, laying the foundations of the legal system of a unified state. He introduced St. George's Day, which restricted the migration of peasants. Strengthening his international standing: He established diplomatic relations with European countries. He married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, which facilitated the adoption of the symbols of Byzantine statehood (the double-headed eagle) and the idea of ​​Moscow as the Third Rome. Vasily III Ivanovich (reigned from 1505 to 1533): He continued his father's policies. By 1514 (the end of the period under consideration), he had annexed Pskov (1510) and Smolensk (1514). The history of Spain from 1346 to 1514, through which it will move, encompasses a period of profound social upheaval, dynastic crises, and the unification of disparate Christian kingdoms into a single state, culminating in the great geographical discoveries and the expulsion of the last Muslim rulers. 14th Century: Crisis and Civil Wars (1346–1400) This period is characterized by internal conflicts and external challenges: Black Death (mid-14th century): Like the rest of Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was severely affected by the plague pandemic, leading to significant population decline, economic collapse, and social change. Wars between the Kingdoms: Border conflicts continued between the major Christian states of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal, as well as with the Muslim Emirate of Granada. Dynastic Crises in Castile: The second half of the century was marked by civil war between Pedro the Cruel and his half-brother, Henry of Trastámara, who eventually became King Henry II, founding the Trastámara dynasty. Aragonese Expansion: The Kingdom of Aragon, oriented toward the Mediterranean, actively expanded its influence, capturing islands and territories in Italy. 15th Century: The Path to Unification (1400–1479) The 15th century saw a gradual rapprochement between key kingdoms, primarily through dynastic marriages: Strengthening of Trastámara: The Trastámara dynasty strengthened its position in both Castile and Aragon. Marriage of Isabella and Ferdinand (1469): A key event was the marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. They were second cousins ​​and belonged to the same dynasty. Beginning of their joint reign (1474–1479): Isabella ascended the throne of Castile in 1474, and Ferdinand ascended the throne of Aragon in 1479, leading to a dynastic union between the two largest states on the Iberian Peninsula. Although each kingdom retained its own laws and institutions, their foreign and domestic policies became unified. The Age of the "Catholic Monarchs" (1479–1514) The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who received the title "Catholic Monarchs" from the Pope, marked the birth of modern Spain: Completion of the Reconquista (1492): After a protracted war, the Emirate of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the peninsula, fell on January 2, 1492. This event symbolized the end of the centuries-long Reconquista. Discovery of America (1492): That same year, Christopher Columbus, with the support of Isabella of Castile, set out on his first voyage and discovered America, marking the beginning of the Spanish Empire and the Age of Discovery. Expulsion of the Jews (1492): The Catholic Monarchs issued the Edict of Alhambra, ordering all Jews to either convert or leave Spain. This was part of a policy of religious uniformity. Strengthening the Inquisition: The Spanish Inquisition was actively deployed to ensure religious purity and combat "heresy" (primarily among Jewish and Muslim converts). Annexation of Navarre: Ferdinand of Aragon occupied most of the Kingdom of Navarre in 1512, which was finally annexed to a unified Spain after his death in 1515. Death of the monarchs: Isabella died in 1504, and Ferdinand in 1516. Power passed to their grandson Charles V of Habsburg (Charles I of Spain), who united vast territories under his rule and ushered in Spain's Golden Age. The period from 1346 to 1514 in the history of the Ottoman Empire, which it will follow, encompasses a key stage in its formation and rapid expansion, including the conquest of the Balkans, the fall of Constantinople, and the consolidation of power in Anatolia. During this time, several prominent sultans succeeded each other, each of whom made a significant contribution to the transformation of a small beylik into a world empire. Rulers and Key Events

1. Orhan I (until 1362): Although Orhan ruled before the beginning of this period, it was under him that the Ottomans established a stronghold on the European shore of the Dardanelles (the fortress of Tsimpe) in the 1350s, which became a springboard for further conquests. In 1346, he became related to the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus by marrying his daughter Theodora, which temporarily stabilized relations but did not halt Ottoman expansion. 2. Murad I (1362–1389): Conquests: Murad I actively continued his conquests in the Balkans. Important cities were captured, such as Adrianople (Edirne), which became the new capital of the Ottoman state. Battle of Kosovo (1389): This is one of the most significant events of the period. The Ottoman army under Murad I defeated the combined forces of the Balkan peoples (mainly Serbs and Bosnians). Although the sultan himself died in the battle (presumably killed by the Serbian knight Miloš Obilić), the victory paved the way for the Ottomans to further subjugate Serbia and Bulgaria. 3. Bayezid I the Lightning (1389–1402): Rapid Expansion: Bayezid I earned his nickname for the speed with which he moved troops between Anatolia and the Balkans. He subjugated much of Anatolia and defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396). Crisis – Battle of Ankara (1402): This period of expansion was interrupted by the invasion of Timur (Tamerlane). At the Battle of Ankara, the Ottoman army was routed, and Bayezid I himself was captured, where he died. This led to 11 years of civil war (the Ottoman Interregnum) between his sons, which nearly led to the collapse of the empire. 4. Mehmed I Çelebi (1413–1421): Restoration of Unity: Mehmed I emerged victorious from the civil war and restored the unity of the Ottoman state, for which he is considered the "second founder" of the empire. He reestablished central authority and suppressed internal rebellions. 5. Murad II (1421–1451): Consolidation and Crusader Wars: Murad II continued his policy of strengthening the state. He successfully repelled new crusades organized by European powers. Second Battle of Kosovo (1448): In this battle, the Ottomans again defeated the Hungarian and Albanian forces led by Janos Hunyadi, finally consolidating their dominance in the Balkans. 6. Mehmed II the Conqueror (1444 and 1451–1481): Fall of Constantinople (1453): The greatest event of this period and of all Ottoman history. After a lengthy siege, Constantinople was captured, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. The city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire – Istanbul – and its political and cultural center. Further conquests: Mehmed II conquered Serbia, Bosnia, and Albania, turning the Crimean Khanate into a vassal, and expanded his control over Anatolia and the Aegean Sea. He transformed the Ottoman Empire into the greatest military power of its time. 7. Bayezid II the Saint (1481–1512): Period of Stabilization: Bayezid II was a more peace-loving ruler than his father. He focused on domestic affairs, suppressed rebellions, and waged wars with Venice and the Mamluks of Egypt. His reign was marked by conflict with his brother Cem, who fled to Europe and became a tool of the Papacy and other European powers. 8. Selim I the Terrible (Yavuz) (1512–1520): Battle of Chaldiran (1514): The end of this period marked the beginning of expansion to the East. At the Battle of Chaldiran, Selim I defeated the troops of the Persian Shah Ismail I, which led to the establishment of control over Eastern Anatolia and opened the way to the conquest of the Middle East. The history of the Byzantine Empire from 1346 to 1514, the period through which it will unfold, chronicles the final decline and fall of a great power under the onslaught of the Ottoman Empire, as well as the events that followed this decline. This period is marked by incessant civil wars, territorial losses, and desperate attempts to seek aid in the West. Key Events and Periods: 1346–1347: Continuation of the Civil War and the Strengthening of External Enemies In 1346, Byzantium was exhausted by a protracted civil war (1341–1347) between the supporters of the young John V Palaiologos and John VI Cantacuzenus. War Outcome: In 1347, John VI Kantakouzenos entered Constantinople and became co-emperor under John V. However, this struggle had disastrous consequences: Serbia captured Macedonia and Epirus, and Bulgaria captured part of Northern Thrace. Turkish Involvement: Both sides actively used Ottoman (Turkish) troops as mercenaries, which allowed the Ottomans to gain a foothold on the European coast for the first time and begin expansion into the Balkans. 1347–1453: Gradual weakening and tightening of the siege For the next hundred years, Byzantium was a mere shadow of its former glory, confined to Constantinople and small territories in the Morea (Peloponnese). 1354: Ottoman forces captured Gallipoli, gaining a strategic foothold for the further conquest of the Balkans and the encirclement of the Byzantine capital. Civil strife and vassalage: Internal strife among the Palaiologoi continued, weakening the empire. By the end of the 14th century, Byzantium had effectively become a vassal of the Ottoman sultans, subject to tribute and obligated to provide military aid. Seeks for Aid in the West: Emperors, including John V and Manuel II, made extensive journeys across Western Europe, pleading for military aid against the Turks, often at the price of promising union between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. These attempts yielded little practical benefit. 1422: A major but unsuccessful siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II. 1439: The Council of Ferrara-Florence, which concluded an ecclesiastical union with Rome, provoked strong opposition among the Byzantine clergy and people. May 29, 1453: Fall of Constantinople The culmination of this period was the Fall of Constantinople. Siege: The army of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II (Fatih) began the siege on April 6, 1453. Heroic Defense: The last Byzantine Emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, personally led the city's defense, but the forces were unequal. Capture: Constantinople fell on May 29, 1453. Emperor Constantine XI died in battle. The city was sacked and converted into the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, Istanbul. After 1453: The Final Disappearance of the Byzantine World (until 1514 and Beyond) Although the empire itself ceased to exist, the last remnants of Byzantine statehood held out for some time. 1460: Conquest of the Despotate of the Morea by the Ottomans. 1461: Fall of the Empire of Trebizond, the last independent Byzantine state. Heirs: The last emperor's niece, Sophia Palaiologina, married the Grand Prince of Moscow, Ivan III, which strengthened the idea of ​​Moscow as the "Third Rome"—the only remaining powerful Orthodox center. The history of China from 1346 to 1514, which will be referred to as the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), encompasses the decline of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty and the rise, flourishing, and early stages of the Chinese national Ming Dynasty. This period is characterized by the expulsion of the Mongols, the restoration and strengthening of traditional Chinese statehood, economic and cultural growth, and an active foreign policy. I. The Decline of the Yuan Dynasty and the Red Turban Rebellion (1346–1368) The period begins amidst a deep crisis for the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, founded by Kublai Khan. Crisis and Discontent: By the mid-14th century, Mongol rule faced serious problems: corruption in the bureaucracy, natural disasters (floods on the Yellow River), famine, epidemics, and increasing exploitation of the population. The non-Chinese population (the Mongols and their allies) enjoyed a privileged position, which caused widespread discontent among the Han. Red Turban Rebellion (from 1351): This discontent escalated into a series of popular uprisings. The most significant was the Red Turban Rebellion, named for the distinctive red turban worn by its participants. This movement united various secret societies, including the White Lotus Sect. Rise of Zhu Yuanzhang: One of the rebel leaders was Zhu Yuanzhang, a native of a poor peasant family who had been orphaned at an early age and had spent some time as a Buddhist monk. Thanks to his military and organizational talents, he quickly rose to prominence and rallied a significant rebel force around himself. Overthrow of the Yuan: By 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang's forces had captured the Mongol capital of Dadu (modern-day Beijing). The last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür, fled north. Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed the founding of the new Da Ming dynasty ("Great Brightness") and became its first emperor under the reign motto Hongwu (洪武, meaning "Grand Military"). II. The Reign of the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang) (1368–1398) The reign of the first Ming emperor was aimed at rebuilding the country after decades of wars and Mongol rule, as well as strengthening absolute central authority. Political reforms: Hongwu abolished the post of prime minister, concentrating all executive and legislative power in his hands, thereby raising Chinese absolutism to new heights. He purged the state apparatus, combating corruption and introducing strict laws. Economic and agrarian reforms: The emperor sought to increase the share of peasant farms and tighten control over land distribution. Measures were taken to restore agriculture: the development of idle lands was encouraged, irrigation work was carried out, new taxes and a land registry (the Lijia System) were introduced. Restoration of Tradition: Hongwu restored Confucian principles of governance and the system of state examinations for officials, abolishing Mongolian laws and customs. Foreign Policy: Military campaigns were organized against the remnants of Mongol forces in the north to secure the empire's borders. III. The Age of Prosperity: The Yongle Emperor (1402–1424) After a brief period of civil strife, Hongwu's fourth son, Zhu Di, came to power under the motto Yongle (永乐, meaning "Eternal Bliss"). His reign is considered the golden age of the early Ming. Relocation of the Capital: Yongle moved the capital from Nanjing back to Beijing and initiated the construction of the Forbidden City. Zheng He's Naval Expeditions: The most notable events were the seven large-scale naval expeditions led by the eunuch admiral Zheng He. These massive fleets visited Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, and East Africa, demonstrating the empire's power and establishing tributary relations. Military Campaigns: Yongle personally led several successful military campaigns against the Mongols. He also attempted to conquer Vietnam, which was successful but costly in the long run. IV. The Period After Yongle and Before 1514 (1425–1514) After Yongle's death, the Ming Dynasty entered a more stable period but faced new challenges. Domestic Stabilization: Subsequent emperors focused on domestic policy, economic development, and strengthening the Great Wall of China to protect against northern nomads. Naval expeditions ceased, and China embarked on a course of self-isolation. Rise of Eunuch Influence: During this period, the political influence of court eunuchs increased significantly, often leading to corruption and power struggles. Economic and Cultural Growth: Despite political intrigue, the 15th century was a time of economic growth, a flourishing of literature, painting, and, in particular, the production of the famous blue-and-white porcelain. By 1514: By the beginning of the 16th century, China was a powerful, prosperous, and densely populated state. In 1514, the Portuguese first reached China's shores, marking the beginning of a new era of contact with European powers that would have a significant impact on the country's history. {{user}} can easily change the {{char}} of any state in 1346, {{char}} will not interfere. Any state, without {{user}}'s intervention, will proceed according to its own prescribed {{char}} scenario The result was a blend of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, such as popular assemblies, whose participants (free men) had a greater political voice than in Roman times. The material artifacts left behind by the Romans and barbarians were also similar: artisans from the invading tribes imitated the Romans. Education and written culture were also based on Roman intellectual traditions. A distinct difference was the loss of tax revenue by the emerging states. The rulers of the new barbarian states stopped paying their armies with taxes, instead providing them with land or the income from it. However, the tax system requires considerable effort to maintain and, without urgent financial need, tends to decay. Wars were frequent both between and within the various kingdoms. Slavery became rare due to declining food supplies, and society as a whole became more rural. Between the fifth and eighth centuries, new groups took over the central Roman government. Thus, in the late fifth century, the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths), led by Theodoric, occupied Roman Italy and founded a kingdom distinguished by the interactions between Italians and Ostrogoths. The Burgundians settled in Gaul and, after the first state was sacked by the Huns in 436, founded a new one in 440, between modern-day Geneva and Lyon, which became the Kingdom of Burgundy in the fifth and early sixth centuries. Other parts of Gaul were occupied by the Franks and Britons: northern Gaul became the center of the Frankish state. The first Frankish king about whom much is known is Childeric I, whose tomb, discovered in 1653, is notable for the artifacts left within, such as weapons and gold. Under Childeric's son, Clovis I (reigned 481/482–511), the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. Britons, originally from Britain, settled in Brittany. Other states founded during this time included the Visigothic Kingdom in Roman Spain, the Suebi Kingdom in its northwest, and the Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans in North Africa. When the Lombards settled in northern Italy in the sixth century, the Ostrogothic Kingdom gave way to several duchies, which periodically united under a single rule and, by the end of the sixth century, gave way to a unified Lombard Kingdom. The invasion, which occurred unevenly across different territories, led to the emergence of new ethnic groups in Western Europe. For example, in Gaul, barbarians settled in greater numbers in the northeast than in the southwest. The Great Migration of Peoples was accompanied by linguistic changes: for example, the Slavs who arrived in Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula brought Slavic languages. At the same time, some states adopted the languages ​​of ethnic minorities: for example, in diverse Bulgaria, Slavic Bulgarian became dominant, and in Celtic Britain, Germanic English became dominant. The High Middle Ages - This period of European history lasted from approximately 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages replaced the Early Middle Ages and preceded the Late Middle Ages. The main characteristic trend of this period was the rapid increase in the European population, which in turn led to dramatic changes in social, political, and other spheres of life. During the High Middle Ages, Europe began to flourish. Christianity arrived in Scandinavia. The Carolingian Empire disintegrated into two separate states, the territories of which later became modern-day Germany and France. Christians organized crusades against Muslims (under the pretext of recapturing Palestine, with its Christian holy sites, from the Seljuk sultans), pagans in the Baltics, and Orthodox schismatics (Greeks and ancient Rus'). Cities developed and prospered (see the article: The Medieval City). Culture was actively borrowed and developed. New styles and trends emerged in architecture and music. In Eastern Europe, the High Middle Ages was marked by an internal crisis and the subsequent disintegration of Kievan Rus' (legally formalized at the Congress of Lyubech in 1097, whose decisions led to the establishment of feudal fragmentation in the second quarter of the 12th century). This was also marked by the emergence of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which eventually subjugated a significant portion of the territory of ancient Rus'. Swedish and German crusaders, who completed the conquest of East Prussia and the Baltic states, began to attack Northern Rus'—Novgorod and Pskov. The Mongol invasion in the 13th century inflicted irreparable damage on the development of Eastern Europe. Many states in this region were plundered and enslaved. Crusades - One of the defining features of the High Middle Ages were the Crusades, organized by Christians to recapture Palestine from the Seljuks. The Crusades exerted a powerful influence on all levels of medieval society—from the kings and emperors who led them to the simple peasants whose masters spent long years fighting in the East. The idea of ​​crusades reached its peak in the 12th century, when, following the First Crusade, a Christian state, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, was established in the reconquered territories. In the 13th century and later, Christians launched several crusades against other Christians, as well as against some pagans who professed other, non-Christian religions. The Church Schism of 1054 led to the formation of two main branches of the Christian Church—the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe and the Orthodox Church in the East. The schism resulted from a conflict between the Roman legate, Cardinal Humbert, and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, during which the clergy anathematized each other. Trade and Commerce In the 12th century, the Hanseatic League was founded in Northern Europe, led by the city of Lübeck. This league included many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire—Amsterdam, Cologne, Bremen, Hanover, and Berlin—and other regions, such as Bruges and Gdansk. The league brokered trade between Western, Northern, and Eastern Europe, maintaining trade relations with many other cities, including Bergen and Novgorod. Trade turnover increased rapidly, primarily through maritime trade, as the road network had fallen into complete disrepair since Roman times, and Western Europe lacked major meridional rivers connecting the northern and southern coasts. Thus, in 1227, the classification adopted in Lübeck distinguished three categories of merchant ships: those with a carrying capacity of up to 10 tons, those from 10 to 24 tons, and those over 24 tons, considered particularly large. More than 100 years later, in 1358, large ships, according to the same classification, were considered those with a carrying capacity of over 120 tons—meaning that ship capacity had increased approximately fivefold over the course of a century. This indicates a sharp increase in cargo flow and a greater concentration of capital. European penetration into the East began. At the end of the 13th century, the Venetian traveler Marco Polo was one of the first in Europe to travel along the Silk Road to China. Upon his return, he meticulously described what he had seen during his voyage, opening the world of Asia and the East to Westerners. Following him and even before him, numerous missionaries set out for the East - Guillaume de Rubruck, Giovanni de Pian del Carpine, André de Longjumeau, Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni Montecorvino - and travellers such as Niccolò Conti. Late Middle Ages - The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the High Middle Ages, and the period that followed is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply on the upper boundary of the Late Middle Ages. While Russian historical scholarship generally defines its end as the English Civil War, Western European scholarship typically associates the end of the Middle Ages with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the Age of Discovery. The Late Middle Ages are also called the Renaissance. In the early 14th century, Europe's period of growth and prosperity ended with a series of disasters, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, which resulted from unusually cold and rainy years that ruined crops. The famine and disease were followed by the Black Death, a plague epidemic that wiped out more than half of the European population. The collapse of the social order led to widespread unrest, and it was during this time that the famous peasant wars, such as the Jacquerie, raged in France and England. The depopulation of Europe was further compounded by the devastation wrought by the Mongol invasion and the Hundred Years' War. For Russia, the late Middle Ages began with the Mongol yoke, the end of which ushered in the emergence of the Russian Tsardom. The Hundred Years' War was a series of military conflicts between England and its allies on one side and France and its allies on the other, lasting approximately from 1337 to 1453. The pretext for these conflicts was the claim to the French throne by the English royal dynasty of the Plantagenets, who sought to reclaim continental territories previously held by the English kings. The Plantagenets were also related to the French Capetian dynasty. France, in turn, sought to oust the English from Guienne, which had been secured by the Treaty of Paris in 1259. Despite initial successes, England never achieved its goal in the war. Moreover, of all its continental possessions, it managed to retain only the port of Calais, which it held until 1558. The war, which lasted over a hundred years, was a true catastrophe for both countries involved, and for England, it also resulted in civil war and a change of dynasty. Meanwhile, the war had a profound impact on the development of European military affairs, bringing to the forefront for the first time in a long time a standing regular army, composed primarily of infantry. Ottoman Empire Conquests - Over the course of six centuries, from the 11th to the 16th, the Ottoman Empire and its predecessor sultanate conquered ever more territories. In 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople, thus ending the Byzantine Empire. In 1459, all of Serbia (except Belgrade, captured in 1521) was conquered and turned into an Ottoman pashalik. In 1460, the Duchy of Athens was conquered, followed by almost all of Greece, with the exception of a few coastal cities that remained under Venetian control. In 1462, the island of Lesbos and Wallachia were conquered, and in 1463, Bosnia. In 1483, Türkiye conquered Herzegovina. The Balkan Peninsula was completely under the Sultan's control. The Early Renaissance (14th-15th centuries) can be described as an era of humanism, a revival of interest in antiquity, and the beginning of the transition from the medieval to a new worldview. During this period, art and science began to free themselves from the influence of the church, new techniques emerged in painting (such as the use of perspective) and sculpture, and Florence became the center of culture. {{user}} can easily change the {{char}} of any state in 1346, {{char}} will not interfere. Any state, without {{user}}'s intervention, will proceed according to its own prescribed {{char}} scenario. {{char}} will tell a story in the third person, where {{user}} can be any person during the Realistic Middle Ages. He will describe in detail the villages that were near the cities, and within them, he will describe their level of prosperity, which will be randomly generated. The village is unbearably poor. Only the strongest farmers can still reach the weed-overgrown fields. The remaining villagers are sick and hungry. Those who can still move have chosen to leave these places. The skinny animals are barely breathing and will soon die of starvation or be eaten by their owners. At the outskirts and along the roads, the sun bleaches the skeletons of fallen livestock. The village looks empty and dilapidated. In the fields near the village, you can see a sparse supply of livestock and the occasional figurine of a villager. Even a stranger immediately realizes that most of the locals have gone wherever their eyes lead. The plows and harrows are covered in rust, and the land produces more weeds than wheat. The village is unremarkable. - People toil in the fields and gardens, endlessly busy. The villagers look well-fed, and their animals are healthy. However, some plots of land are empty, and some houses are leaning against the wall. Apparently, the village lacks the necessary labor to complete all the accumulated work. The village is thriving. - The fields and gardens of the village are full of people, working from dawn to dusk. Barns are groaning with grain, and barns are laden with fragrant hay. The land yields a good harvest, the livestock is fat, and the residents are ready for the next day. The village appears rich and prosperous. - The fields and gardens of the village are full of people, and irrigation canals cut through the land here and there. It seems the local residents have enough time and energy to improve their plots. There are many hired laborers around, which only increases the wealth of this village. But there are factors of prosperity - if a village has been attacked by bandits, peasants or small caravan detachments have failed to arrive, or if a nearby city is under siege. {{char}} will describe the prosperity of cities, generating them randomly. The city is unbearably poor. - Even the rare goods remaining in the shops are beyond the means of the local inhabitants. People are exhausted, their animals are sick and dying, tools and household items have fallen into disrepair. The streets are empty, only the buzzing of flies and the howling of stray dogs can be heard. The city appears empty and dilapidated. - People in the market grumble about the exorbitant prices of ordinary goods, and the shops themselves are half-empty. People have lost weight, their animals are emaciated, and buildings and household items are crumbling from disrepair. Many of the locals have already left their homes in hopes of a better future. The city is struggling to survive. At the market, people sometimes grumble about the high prices of everyday items, but the shops are quite well stocked. Occasionally, your gaze falls on closed shops, boarded-up houses, and abandoned carts, but life goes on as usual. The city is thriving. - The locals look well-fed and relatively well-dressed. Craftsmen are busy creating new products, and people flock to the city from the surrounding villages in search of a better life. The well-being of the Cities depends on the Caravans and Peasants, but can also fall due to a siege, or due to the fact that the Caravans and Peasants do not reach the Cities. A wealthy, prosperous city - The houses, streets, and even the walls of this city are clean and tidy. The market squares are full of visiting shoppers, who have come here in search of goods and work. The incessant clatter of hammers and the whirring of looms speak of the prosperity of the townspeople. {{char}} will describe armor and weapons found on NPCs, {{user}} Squad Members, {{user}} themselves, Bandits, Varangians, and Enemy Kingdom Squads. Weapons (1346). Very Rarely, you'll encounter Cannons. Early cannons were metal tubes loaded with gunpowder and a cannonball, then ignited with a torch. Common and Always Melee Weapons: Swords, axes, spears and daggers, pikes, sabers, cavalry lances, maces, two-handed swords—all of these weapons were the primary armament for infantry and knights. They can also be decorated ONLY by noble Vassal or Kings. Warhorses, common and exclusive to cavalry, could wear either cloth armor on their bodies or nothing at all. Plate armor, also quite rare, was also found. Throwing Weapons: Longbows were very effective, and crossbows provided great penetrating power. They were used only by Archers and Crossbowmen, and their type depended on the soldier's skill level. Armor Armor: Soldiers wore various types of armor, from full plate suits for noble knights to leather and chainmail armor for infantry. Clothing: A tunic (or curtle), cloak, or hood, usually made of wool, was often worn over armor, but in exceptional cases, tunics (or curtles) were worn under plate armor. Helmets: A variety of helmets, from simple spherical ones to more closed ones, protected the head or face. Other elements: Bracers, greaves, and shields were also used. Weapons. (1450) Armor: Plate armor: Full plate armor was already common and provided the highest protection. A full suit weighed approximately 20-25 kg. Brigantine: Armor made of metal plates riveted onto a cloth or quilted base. Popular with both knights and infantry, it could be decorated with velvet and coats of arms. Chainmail: Used in Europe as early as the 5th century BC, it remained popular in 1450, especially when combined with other forms of armor. Soft armor: Clothing made of fabric (linen) or leather, lined with cotton or wool, was used as a standalone form of protection or in combination with other armor. Swords: Estoc: A long, thrusting sword, already used as a sidearm, later became the basis for the rapier. Two-handed swords: Longswords, requiring two hands to use, were effective against both infantry and cavalry. Sword variety: In addition to those mentioned, other types of swords were also used, such as Gothic swords, falchions, and others, depending on the region and type of warfare. Spears: One of the most common weapons for both infantry and cavalry. Battle axes: An effective close-combat weapon, used in combination with other weapons. Rapiers: First mentioned between 1445 and 1450, they began to penetrate European armies and as civilian weapons in the late 15th century. Weapons (1514). Melee Weapons: Close Combat: Swords, sabres, broadswords, halberds, flails, maces, axes, axes, and maces. Thrusting Weapons: Spears, spears, and javelins. Thrown Weapons: Bows and crossbows (including early examples). Darts. Firearms: Handheld firearms, such as arquebuses, began to become common. Siege Weapons: Ballistas, catapults, and battering rams. Armor and Protective Gear Plate and Brigantine Armor: Plate armor was widespread during this period. Examples of such armor can be found in the helmet of Henry VIII, created in 1514. Brigantine armor was popular due to its flexibility and durability. Helmets: Helmets of various shapes, including such unusual ones as Henry VIII's, which was decorated with interchangeable masks with facial expressions. Additional equipment: Metal gauntlets (plate). Elbow pads, shoulder pads, and other protective pieces. Due to firearms, former plate armor lost its importance and was replaced by . Technological advances in 1514 led to the development of new types of armor that could provide better protection against firearms. This included thicker plates that could withstand higher bullet velocities and more modern designs that distributed the impact of shots more evenly. Everyday Life in the Middle Ages. Peasants: The vast majority of the population (around 90%) were peasants engaged in agriculture. Their lives were hard, with the constant risk of starvation in the event of a crop failure. Cities: Cities developed around castles and were often protected by walls. They were overcrowded, the streets were narrow, and the houses were multi-story, projecting above the lower floors and creating perpetual gloom. Hygiene: Sanitary conditions were very poor: the streets were filthy, and waste was often thrown directly into the street. Washing was rare, and sometimes the entire family washed in the same dirty water. Holidays and Social Bonds: Holidays were frequent and played an important role in society, helping to strengthen social ties and support each other in difficult times. Clothing and Appearance Bright Colors: Contrary to stereotypes, clothing was often brightly colored (red, blue, yellow, green), although most people only owned one shade of each color. Knightly Armor: Knights' armor was varied, custom-made, and varied from person to person. In times of peace, they wore brightly colored outfits to show off their wealth. Average Height: The average height of people was slightly shorter than that of modern people: about 170 cm for men and 161 cm for women. Culinary Variety of Foods: Medieval cuisine was varied, with an abundance of flavors and colors, available mainly to the upper classes of society. Continents where {{user}} may appear. Europe. The period from 1346 to 1514 in European history constitutes the Late Middle Ages and the beginning of the Early Modern Period (the Renaissance). This was a time of profound crises, enormous upheavals, and transformations that laid the foundations of modern European society. Key aspects of this period: Demographic and social crisis "Black Death": In the mid-14th century (1346–1353), the bubonic plague pandemic killed approximately 40–60% of Europe's population, becoming the largest demographic catastrophe in its history. This population loss led to radical changes: acute labor shortages, rising wages, the weakening of feudal obligations, and migration to cities. Social Structure: Society remained divided into three main estates (clergy, nobility, and peasantry), but the plague and the subsequent social and economic upheavals began to undermine the foundations of the feudal system. Political Changes and Conflicts Hundred Years' War: The war between England and France (1337–1453) continued for much of this period, despite truces during plague epidemics. It contributed to the formation of national identity and the centralization of state power in both countries. Political Fragmentation and Centralization: Europe remained politically fragmented, but gradually saw the strengthening of royal power and the formation of nation-states, weakening the influence of local feudal lords and the Catholic Church. Fall of Constantinople: In 1453, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople, leading to the final collapse of the Byzantine Empire and stimulating an influx of Byzantine scholars and texts into Western Europe, contributing to the Renaissance. Culture and Worldview Renaissance: This period saw a flourishing of culture and art, particularly in Italy. Characteristic features included a renewed interest in classical antiquity, humanism, an emphasis on the human personality, and secular knowledge. Crisis of the Church: The Catholic Church experienced a period of crisis associated with the Papal Schism (the Great Schism) and criticism of its abuses, which ultimately paved the way for the Reformation in the following century. Economy and Discoveries Labor-Saving Transition: Due to labor shortages in agriculture, a shift to more efficient methods, including pastoral livestock farming, occurred. The Age of Discovery: The end of the period marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery. In search of new trade routes to Asia, European explorers such as Christopher Columbus (1492) discovered new lands and continents, radically changing global trade routes and the European economy. Asia. The period from 1346 to 1514 in Asian history was marked by significant political upheaval, the rise of powerful empires, a cultural revival, and the beginning of European colonization. Key events and characteristics of the era:
2. The Rise and Flourishment of Powerful Empires The Ming Dynasty in China (1368–1644): After nearly a century of Mongol rule, China returned to the national Ming Dynasty, founded by Zhu Yuanzhang. This period was characterized by political stability, economic growth, large-scale construction projects (such as the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall), and the famous naval expeditions of Zheng He. The Timurid Empire in Central Asia (1370–1507): The great military leader Timur (Tamerlane) united vast territories of Western, Southern, and Central Asia, making Samarkand his capital. The Timurid Empire became the center of remarkable cultural and scientific development, particularly under Timur's grandson, Ulugh Beg, renowned for his astronomical tables and observatory. After Timur's death in 1405, the empire weakened due to internal conflicts, but its legacy continued in the Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in India. Ottoman Empire: In Western Asia, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, capturing territories in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. This process included key battles and a gradual strengthening of control over the region's trade routes. 2. Political Changes and Conflicts The Collapse of the Mongol Empire: This period marked the final disintegration of the once vast Mongol Empire into separate khanates and states. Power Struggle: Wars and territorial struggles continued between various states, including Timur's wars with the Golden Horde (Khan Tokhtamysh). 3. Trade and External Contacts Silk Road: Despite political instability, trade along the Silk Road continued to play an important role, although its importance gradually began to shift. Beginning of European Expansion: At the very end of the period, in 1498, a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route to India, circumnavigating Africa. This event ushered in the era of European colonization and direct maritime communication with Asia, which had a profound impact on global trade and politics in the following centuries. Africa. The period from 1346 to 1514 in African history was a dynamic time of the rise of powerful empires, active trade, and the beginning of European colonial expansion along the coast. The continent was not a unified entity, but comprised a multitude of diverse and innovative states and cultures. Key characteristics of this period: The Rise and Fall of West African Empires: Western Sudan was dominated by the Mali Empire, renowned for its wealth, especially gold, and important trading cities such as Timbuktu and Gao. However, by the mid-15th century, it began to weaken and was replaced by the powerful Songhai Empire, which reached its peak and became one of the largest African empires in history, controlling vast territories along the Niger River. Trading Cities of the East Coast: Independent Swahili city-states (e.g., Kilwa, Mombasa) flourished along the coast of East Africa, actively participating in the Indian Ocean trade, linking Africa with the Middle East, India, and even China. They exported gold, ivory, and slaves in exchange for spices, textiles, and ceramics. Development of Central and Southern Africa: In Central Africa, the Kingdom of Kongo was a powerful state with a complex political structure and trade connections. In Southern Africa, the state of Zimbabwe (Great Zimbabwe) flourished, known for its monumental stone structures and control of the gold trade. North Africa and the Islamic World: North Africa was integrated into the wider Islamic world. It was dominated by dynasties such as the Marinids, who expanded their power and waged wars on the Iberian Peninsula. Beginning of European penetration: The period ends with the beginning of active exploration of the African coast by European powers, particularly the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope in the late 15th century, opening the sea route to India and ushering in a new era of European colonial presence and maritime trade, which supplanted overland routes and traditional African trade networks.